Novel formulations of pharmacological agents, methods for the preparation thereof and methods for the use thereof

ABSTRACT

In accordance with the present invention, there are provided compositions and methods useful for the in vivo delivery of substantially water insoluble pharmacologically active agents (such as the anticancer drug paclitaxel) in which the pharmacologically active agent is delivered in the form of suspended particles coated with protein (which acts as a stabilizing agent). In particular, protein and pharmacologically active agent in a biocompatible dispersing medium are subjected to high shear, in the absence of any conventional surfactants, and also in the absence of any polymeric core material for the particles. The procedure yields particles with a diameter of less than about 1 micron. The use of specific composition and preparation conditions (e.g., addition of a polar solvent to the organic phase), and careful selection of the proper organic phase and phase fraction, enables the reproducible production of unusually small nanoparticles of less than 200 nm diameter, which can be sterile-filtered. The particulate system produced according to the invention can be converted into a redispersible dry powder comprising nanoparticles of water-insoluble drug coated with a protein, and free protein to which molecules of the pharmacological agent are bound. This results in a unique delivery system, in which part of the pharmacologically active agent is readily bioavailable (in the form of molecules bound to the protein), and part of the agent is present within particles without any polymeric matrix therein.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to methods for the production ofparticulate vehicles for the intravenous administration ofpharmacologically active agents, as well as novel compositions producedthereby. In a particular aspect, the invention relates to methods forthe in vivo delivery of substantially water insoluble pharmacologicallyactive agents (e.g., the anticancer drug Taxol®). In another aspect,dispersible colloidal systems containing water insolublepharmacologically active agents are provided. The suspended particlesmay be formed of 100% active agent, or may be encased in a polymericshell formulated from a biocompatible polymer, and have a diameter ofless than about 1 micron. Invention colloidal systems may be preparedwithout the use of conventional surfactant or any polymeric core matrix.In a presently preferred aspect of the invention, there is provided amethod for preparation of extremely small particles which can besterile-filtered. The polymeric shell contains particles ofpharmacologically active agent, and optionally a biocompatibledispersing agent in which pharmacologically active agent can be eitherdissolved or suspended. Thus, the invention provides a drug deliverysystem in either liquid form or in the form of a redispersible powder.Either form provides both immediately bioavailable drug molecules (i.e.,drug molecules which are molecularly bound to a protein), and pure drugparticles coated with a protein.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention also relates to the method of use and preparation ofcompositions (formulations) of drugs such as the anticancer agentpaclitaxel. In one aspect, the formulation of paclitaxel, known asCapxol, is significantly less toxic and more efficacious than Taxol®, acommercially available formulation of paclitaxel. In another aspect, thenovel formulation Capxol, localizes in certain tissues after parenteraladministration thereby increasing the efficacy of treatment of cancersassociated with such tissues.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Intravenous drug delivery permits rapid and direct equilibration withthe blood stream which carries the medication to the rest of the body.To avoid the peak serum levels which are achieved within a short timeafter intravascular injection, administration of drugs carried withinstable carriers would allow gradual release of the drugs inside theintravascular compartment following a bolus intravenous injection of thetherapeutic nanoparticles.

Injectable controlled-release nanoparticles can provide a pre-programmedduration of action, ranging from days to weeks to months from a singleinjection. They also can offer several profound advantages overconventionally administered medicaments, including automatic assuredpatient compliance with the dose regimen, as well as drug targeting tospecific tissues or organs (Tice and Gilley, Journal of ControlledRelease 2:343-352 (1985)).

Microparticles and foreign bodies present in the blood are generallycleared from the circulation by the “blood filtering organs”, namely thespleen, lungs and liver. The particulate matter contained in normalwhole blood comprises red blood cells (typically 8 microns in diameter),white blood cells (typically 6-8 microns in diameter), and platelets(typically 1-3 microns in diameter). The microcirculation in most organsand tissues allows the free passage of these blood cells. Whenmicrothrombii (blood clots) of size greater than 10-15 microns arepresent in circulation, a risk of infarction or blockage of thecapillaries results, leading to ischemia or oxygen deprivation andpossible tissue death. Injection into the circulation of particlesgreater than 10-15 microns in diameter, therefore, must be avoided. Asuspension of particles less than 7-8 microns, is however, relativelysafe and has been used for the delivery of pharmacologically activeagents in the form of liposomes and emulsions, nutritional agents, andcontrast media for imaging applications.

The size of particles and their mode of delivery determines theirbiological behavior. Strand et al. (in Microspheres-BiomedicalApplications, ed. A. Rembaum, pp 193-227, CRC Press (1988)) havedescribed the fate of particles to be dependent on their size. Particlesin the size range of a few nanometers (nm) to 100 nm enter the lymphaticcapillaries following interstitial injection, and phagocytosis may occurwithin the lymph nodes. After intravenous/intraarterial injection,particles less than about 2 microns will be rapidly cleared from theblood stream by the reticuloendothelial system (RES), also known as themononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). Particles larger than about 7microns will, after intravenous injection, be trapped in the lungcapillaries. After intraarterial injection, particles are trapped in thefirst capillary bed reached. Inhaled particles are trapped by thealveolar macrophages.

Pharmaceuticals that are water-insoluble or poorly water-soluble andsensitive to acid environments in the stomach cannot be conventionallyadministered (e.g., by intravenous injection or oral administration).The parenteral administration of such pharmaceuticals has been achievedby emulsification of the oil solubilized drug with an aqueous liquid(such as normal saline) in the presence of surfactants or emulsionstabilizers to produce stable microemulsions. These emulsions may beinjected intravenously, provided the components of the emulsion arepharmacologically inert. U.S. Pat. No. 4,073,943 describes theadministration of water-insoluble pharmacologically active agentsdissolved in oils and emulsified with water in the presence ofsurfactants such as egg phosphatides, pluronics (copolymers ofpolypropylene glycol and polyethylene glycol), polyglycerol oleate, etc.PCT International Publication No. WO85/00011 describes pharmaceuticalmicrodroplets of an anaesthetic coated with a phospholipid such asdimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine having suitable dimensions forintradermal or intravenous injection.

An example of a water-insoluble drug is Taxol®, a natural product firstisolated from the Pacific Yew tree, Taxus brevifolia, by Wani et al. (J.Am. Chem. Soc. 93:2325 (1971)). Among the antimitotic agents, Taxol,which contains a diterpene carbon skeleton, exhibits a unique mode ofaction on microtubule proteins responsible for the formation of themitotic spindle. In contrast with other antimitotic agents such asvinblastine or colchicine, which prevent the assembly of tubulin, Taxolis the only plant product known to inhibit the depolymerization processof tubulin, thus preventing the cell replication process.

Taxol, a naturally occurring diterpenoid, has been shown to havesignificant antineoplastic and anticancer effects in drug-refractoryovarian cancer. Taxol has shown excellent antitumor activity in a widevariety of tumor models such as the B16 melanoma, L1210 leukemias, MX-1mammary tumors, and CS-1 colon tumor xenografts. Several recent pressreleases have termed Taxol as the new anticancer wonder-drug. Indeed,Taxol has recently been approved by the Federal Drug Administration fortreatment of ovarian cancer. The poor aqueous solubility of Taxol,however, presents a problem for human administration. Indeed, thedelivery of drugs that are inherently insoluble or poorly soluble in anaqueous medium can be seriously impaired if oral delivery is noteffective. Accordingly, currently used Taxol formulations require acremaphor to solubilize the drug. The human clinical dose range is200-500 mg. This dose is dissolved in a 1:1 solution ofethanol:cremaphor and diluted with saline of about 300-1000 ml of fluidgiven intravenously. The cremaphor currently used is polyethoxylatedcastor oil. The presence of cremaphor in this formulation has beenlinked to severe hypersensitivity reactions in animals (Lorenz et al.,Agents Actions 1987, 7, 63-67) and humans (Weiss et al., J. Clin. Oncol.1990, 8, 1263-68) and consequently requires premedication of patientswith corticosteroids (dexamethasone) and antihistamines. The largedilution results in large volumes of infusion (typical dose 175 mg/m²)up to 1 liter and infusion times ranging from 3 hours to 24 hours. Thus,there is a need for an alternative less toxic formulation forpaclitaxel.

In phase I clinical trials, Taxol® itself did not show excessive toxiceffects, but severe allergic reactions were caused by the emulsifiersemployed to solubilize the drug. The current regimen of administrationinvolves treatment of the patient with antihistamines and steroids priorto injection of the drug to reduce the allergic side effects of thecremaphor.

In an effort to improve the water solubility of Taxol, severalinvestigators have modified its chemical structure with functionalgroups that impart enhanced water-solubility. Among them are thesulfonated derivatives (Kingston et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,059,699(1991)), and amino acid esters (Mathew et al., J. Med. Chem. 3:145-151(1992)) which show significant biological activity. Modifications toproduce a water-soluble derivative facilitate the intravenous deliveryof Taxol dissolved in an innocuous carrier such as normal saline. Suchmodifications, however, add to the cost of drug reparation, may induceundesired side-reactions and/or allergic reactions, and/or may decreasethe efficiency of the drug.

Protein microspheres have been reported in the literature as carriers ofpharmacological or diagnostic agents. Microspheres of albumin have beenprepared by either heat denaturation or chemical crosslinking. Heatdenatured microspheres are produced from an emulsified mixture (e.g.,albumin, the agent to be incorporated, and a suitable oil) attemperatures between 100° C. and 150° C. The microspheres are thenwashed with a suitable solvent and stored. Leucuta et al. (InternationalJournal of Pharmaceutics 41:213-217 (1988)) describe the method ofpreparation of heat denatured microspheres.

The procedure for preparing chemically crosslinked microspheres involvestreating the emulsion with glutaraldehyde to crosslink the protein,followed by washing and storage. Lee et al. (Science 213:233-235 (1981))and U.S. Pat. No. 4,671,954 teach this method of preparation.

The above techniques for the preparation of protein microspheres ascarriers of pharmacologically active agents, although suitable for thedelivery of water-soluble agents, are incapable of entrappingwater-insoluble ones. This limitation is inherent in the technique ofpreparation which relies on crosslinking or heat denaturation of theprotein component in the aqueous phase of a water-in-oil emulsion. Anyaqueous-soluble agent dissolved in the protein-containing aqueous phasemay be entrapped within the resultant crosslinked or heat-denaturedprotein matrix, but a poorly aqueous-soluble or oil-soluble agent cannotbe incorporated into a protein matrix formed by these techniques.

One conventional method for manufacturing drug-containing nanoparticlescomprises dissolving polylactic acid (or other biocompatible, waterinsoluble polymers) in a water-immiscible solvent (such as methylenechloride or other chlorinated, aliphatic, or aromatic solvent),dissolving the pharmaceutically active agent in the polymer solution,adding a surfactant to the oil phase or the aqueous phase, forming anoil-in-water emulsion by suitable means, and evaporating the emulsionslowly under vacuum. If the oil droplets are sufficiently small andstable during evaporation, a suspension of the polymer in water isobtained. Since the drug is initially present in the polymer solution,it is possible to obtain by this method, a composition in which the drugmolecules are entrapped within particles composed of a polymeric matrix.The formation of microspheres and nanoparticles by using the solventevaporation method has been reported by several researchers (see, forexample, Tice and Gilley, in Journal of Controlled Release 2:343-352(1985); Bodmeier and McGinity, in Int. J. Pharmaceutics 43:179 (1988);Cavalier et al., in J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 38:249 (1985); and D'Souza etal., WO 94/10980) while using various drugs.

Bazile et. al., in Biomaterials 13:1093 (1992), and Spenlehauer et al.,in Fr Patent 2 660 556, have reported the formation of nanoparticles byusing two biocompatible polymers, one (e.g., polylactide) is dissolvedin the organic phase, together with an active component such as a drug,and the other polymer, such as albumin, is used as the surface activeagent. After emulsification and removal of the solvent, nanoparticlesare formed, in which the drug is present inside the polymeric matrix ofthe polylactide particles.

The properties of the polymer solution from which the polymeric matrixis formed are very important to obtain the proper emulsion in the firststage. For example, polylactide (the polymer commonly used in thepreparation of injectable nanoparticles), has a surface activity whichcauses the rapid adsorption thereof at the dichloromethane-waterinterface, causing reduced interfacial tension (see, for example, Bouryet al., in Langmuir 11:1636 (1995)), which in turn improves theemulsification process. In addition, the same researchers found thatBovine Serum Albumin (BSA) interacts with the polylactide, andpenetrates into the polylactide monolayer present at the oil-waterinterface. Therefore, it is expected, based on the above reference, thatemulsification during the conventional solvent evaporation method isgreatly favored by the presence of the surface active polymer(polylactide) in the nonaqueous organic phase. In fact, the presence ofpolylactide is not only a sufficient condition, but it is actuallynecessary for the formation of nanoparticles of suitable size.

Another process which is based on the solvent evaporation methodcomprises dissolving the drug in a hydrophobic solvent (e.g., toluene orcyclohexane), without any polymer dissolved in the organic solvent,adding a conventional surfactant to the mixture as an emulsifier,forming an oil-in-water emulsion by use of sonication on high-shearequipment, and then evaporating the solvent to obtain dry particles ofthe drug (see, for example, Sjostrom et al., in J. Dispersion Scienceand Technology 1:89-117 (1994)). Upon removal of the nonpolar solvent,precipitation of the drug inside the solvent droplets occurs, andsubmicron particles are obtained.

It has been found that the size of the particles is mainly controlled bythe initial size of the emulsion droplets. In addition, it isinteresting to note that the final particle size is reported to decreasewith a decrease in the drug concentration in the organic phase. Thisfinding is contrary to the results reported herein, wherein noconventional surfactant is used for the preparation of nanoparticles (insame embodiments of the invention). In addition, it is noted by theauthors of the Sjostrom paper that the drug used, cholesteryl acetate,is surface active in toluene, and hence may be oriented at the oil-waterinterface; therefore the concentration of drug at the interface ishigher, thus increasing the potential for precipitation.

Formation of submicron particles has also been achieved by aprecipitation process, as described by Calvo et al. in J. Pharm. Sci.85:530 (1996). The process is based on dissolving the drug (e.g.,indomethacin) and the polymer (poly-caprolactone) in methylene chlorideand acetone, and then pouring the solution into an aqueous phasecontaining a surfactant (Poloxamer 188), to yield submicron sizeparticles (216 nm). However, the process is performed at solventconcentrations at which no emulsion is formed.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Taxol is a naturally occurring compound which has shown great promise asan anti-cancer drug. For example, Taxol has been found to be an activeagent against drug-refractory ovarian cancer by McGuire et al. See“Taxol: A Unique Anti-Neoplastic Agent With Significant Activity AgainstAdvanced Ovarian Epithelial Neoplasms.” Ann. Int. Med., 111, 273-279(1989). All patents, scientific articles, and other documents mentionedherein are incorporated by reference as if reproduced in full below.

Unfortunately, Taxol has extremely low solubility in water, which makesit difficult to provide a suitable dosage form. In fact, in Phase Iclinical trials, severe allergic reactions were caused by theemulsifiers administered in conjunction with Taxol to compensate forTaxol's low water solubility; at least one patient's death was caused byan allergic reaction induced by the emulsifiers. Dose limitingtoxicities include neutropenia, peripheral neuropathy, andhypersensitivity reactions.

Brown et al., in “A Phase I Trial of Taxol Given by A 6-Hour IntravenousInfusion” J of Clin Oncol, Vol. 9 No. 7, pp. 1261-1267 (July 1991)report on a Phase I Trial in which Taxol was provided as a 6-hour IVinfusion every 21 days without premedication. 31 patients received 64assessable courses of Taxol. One patient had a severe (or acute)hypersensitivity reaction, which required discontinuation of theinfusion and immediate treatment to save the patient's life. Anotherpatient experienced a hypersensitivity reaction, but it was not sosevere as to require discontinuing the infusion. Myelosuppression wasdose-limiting, with 2 fatalities due to sepsis. Non-hematologic toxicitywas of Grade 1 and 2, except for one patient with Grade 3 mucositis and2 patients with Grade 3 neuropathy. The neuropathy consisted ofreversible painful paresthesias, requiring discontinuation of Taxol intwo patients. Four partial responses were seen (3 in patients withnon-small-cell lung cancer, and one in a patient with adenocarcinoma ofunknown primary). The maximum tolerated dose reported was 275 mg/m2, andthe recommended Phase II starting dose was 225 mg/m2. The incidence ofhypersensitivity reaction was reported to be schedule-dependent, with 6to 24-hour infusions of drug having a 0% to 8% incidence ofhypersensitivity reactions. It was also reported that hypersensitivityreactions persist with or without premedication despite prolongation ofinfusion times. Since these Phase I studies were conducted on terminallyill patients suffering from a variety of cancers, the efficacy of theTaxol treatments could not be determined.

In a study by Kris et al., Taxol formulated with Cremaphor EL indehydrated alcohol was given as a 3-hour IV infusion every 21 days, withthe administered dosage ranging from 15 to 230 mg/m2 in nine escalationsteps. Kris et al. concluded that “with the severity andunpredictability of the hypersensitivity reactions, further usage ofTaxol is not indicated with this drug formulation on this administrationschedule.” See Cancer Treat. Rep., Vol. 70, No. 5, May 1986.

Since early trials using a bolus injection or short (1-3 hour) infusionsinduced anaphylactic reactions or other hypersensitivity responses,further studies were carried out in which Taxol was administered onlyafter premedication with steroids (such as dexamethasone),antihistamines (such as diphenhydramine), and H2-antagonists (such ascimetidine or ranitidine), and the infusion time was extended to 24hours in an attempt to eliminate the most serious allergic reactions.Various Phase I and Phase II study results have been published utilizing24-hour infusions of Taxol with maximum total dosages of 250 mg/m2,generally with the course being repeated every 3 weeks. Patients werepre-treated with dexamethasone, diphenhydramine, and cimetidine tooffset allergic reactions. See Einzig, et al., “Phase II Trial of Taxolin Patients with Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma,” Cancer Investigation,9(2) 133-136 (1991), and A. B. Miller et al., “Reporting Results ofCancer Treatment,” Cancer, Vol 47, 207-214 (1981).

Koeller et al., in “A Phase I Pharmacokinetic Study of Taxol Given By aProlonged Infusion Without Premedication,” Proceedings of ASCO, Vol. 8(March, 1989), recommends routine premedication in order to avoid thesignificant number of allergic reactions believed to be caused by thecremophor (polyethoxylated castor oil) vehicle used for Taxol infusions.Patients received dosages ranging from 175 mg/m2 to 275 mg/m2.

Wiernik et al. in “Phase I Clinical and Pharmacokinetic Study of Taxol,”Cancer Research, 47, 2486-2493 (May 1, 1987), also report theadministration of Taxol in a cremophor vehicle by IV infusion over a6-hour period in a Phase I study. Grade 3-4 hypersensitivity reactionsincurred in 4 of 13 courses. The starting dose for the study was 15mg/m2 (one-third of the lowest toxic dose in dogs). Doses wereescalated, and a minimum of 3 patients were treated at each dose leveluntil toxicity was identified, and then 4-6 patients were treated ateach subsequent level. The study concluded that neurotoxicity andleukopenia were dose-limiting, and the recommended Phase II trial dosewas 250 mg/m2 with premedication.

Other exemplary studies on Taxol include: Legha et al., “Phase II Trialof Taxol in Metastatic Melanoma,” Vol. 65 (June 1990) pp. 2478-2481;Rowinsky et al., “Phase I and Pharmacodynamic Study of Taxol inRefractory Acute Leukemias,” Cancer Research, 49, 4640-4647 (Aug. 15,1989); Grem et al., “Phase I Study of Taxol Administered as a Short IVInfusion Daily For 5 Days,” Cancer Treatment Reports, Vol. 71 No. 12,(December, 1987); Donehower et al., “Phase I Trial of Taxol in PatientsWith Advanced Cancer,” Cancer Treatment Reports, Vol. 71, No. 12,(December, 1987); Holmes et al., “Phase II Study of Taxol in Patients(PT) with Metastatic Breast Cancer (MBC),” Proceedings of the AmericanSociety of Clinical Oncology, Vol. 10, (March, 1991), pp. 60. See alsoSuffness. “Development of Antitumor Natural Products at the NationalCancer Institute,” Gann Monograph or Cancer Research, 31 (1989) pp.21-44 (which recommends that Taxol only be given as a 24-hour infusion).

Weiss et al., in “Hypersensitivity Reactions from Taxol,” Journal ofClinical Oncology, Vol. 8, No. 7 (July 1990) pp. 1263-1268, reportedthat it was difficult to determine a reliable overall incidence ofhypersensitivity reactions, HSRs, because of the wide variations inTaxol doses and schedules used, and the unknown degree of influence thatchanging the infusion schedule and using premedication has on HSRincidents. For example, of five patients who received Taxol in a 3-hourinfusion at greater than 190 mg/m2 with no premedication, three hadreactions, while only one out of 30 patients administered even higherdoses over a 6-hour infusion with no premedication had a reaction.Therefore, this suggests that prolonging the infusion to beyond 6 hoursis sufficient to reduce HSR incidents. Nevertheless, Weiss et al. foundthat patients receiving 250 mg/m2 of Taxol administered via a 24-hourinfusion still had definite HSRs. Thus, while prolonging drug infusionto 6 or 24-hours may reduce the risk for an acute reaction, thisconclusion can not be confirmed, since 78% of the HSR reactions occurredwithin ten minutes of initiating the Taxol infusion, which indicatesthat the length of time planned for the total infusion would have nobearing. Further, concentration of Taxol in the infusion may also notmake a difference since substantial numbers of patients had reactions tovarious small Taxol dosages. Finally, not only is the mechanism of TaxolHSR unknown, it is also not clear whether Taxol itself is inducing HSRs,or if the HSRs are due to the excipient (Cremaphor EL; Badische Anilinund Soda Fabrik AG [BASF], Ludwigshafen, Federal Republic of Germany).Despite the uncertainty as to whether or not premedication had anyinfluence on reducing the severity or number of HSRs, prophylactictherapy was recommended, since there is no known danger from its use.

The conflicting recommendations in the prior art concerning whetherpremedication should be used to avoid hypersensitivity reactions whenusing prolonged infusion durations, and the lack of efficacy data forinfusions done over a six-hour period has led to the use of a 24-hourinfusion of high doses (above 170 mg/m2) of Taxol in a Cremaphor ELemulsion as an accepted cancer treatment protocol.

Although it appears possible to minimize the side effects ofadministering Taxol in an emulsion by use of a long infusion duration,the long infusion duration is inconvenient for patients, and isexpensive due to the need to monitor the patients for the entire 6 to24-hour infusion duration. Further, the long infusion duration requiresthat patients spend at least one night in a hospital or treatmentclinic.

Higher doses of paclitaxel have also been described in the literature.To determine the maximal-tolerated dose (MTD) of paclitaxel incombination with high-dose cyclophosphamide and cisplatin followed byautologous hematopoietic progenitor-cell support (AHPCS), Stemmer et al(Stemmer S M, Cagnoni P J, Shpall E J, et al: High-dose paclitaxel,cyclophosphamide, and cisplatin with autologous hematopoieticprogenitor-cell support: A phase I trial. J Clin Oncol 14:1463-1472,1996) have conducted a phase I trial in forty-nine patients withpoor-prognosis breast cancer, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) or ovariancancer with escalating doses of paclitaxel infused over 24 hours,followed by cyclophosphamide (5,625 mg/m²) and cisplatin (165 mg/m²) andAHPCS. Dose-limiting toxicity was encountered in two patients at 825mg/m² of paclitaxel; one patient died of multi-organ failure and theother developed grade 3 respiratory, CNS, and renal toxicity, whichresolved. Grade 3 polyneuropathy and grade 4 CNS toxicity were alsoobserved. The MTD of this combination was determined to be paclitaxel(775 mg/m²), cyclophosphamide (5,625 mg/m²), and cisplatin (165 mg/m²)followed by AHPCS. Sensory polyneuropathy and mucositis were prominenttoxicities, but both were reversible and tolerable. Eighteen of 33patients (54%) with breast cancer achieved a partial response. Responseswere also observed in patients with NHL (four of five patients) andovarian cancer (two of two patients).

U.S. Pat. No. 5,641,803 reports the use of Taxol at doses 175 and 135mg/m2 administered in a 3 hour infusion. The infusion protocols requirethe use premedication and reports the incidences of hypersensitivityreactions in 35% of the patients. Neurotoxicity was reported in 51% ofpatients with 66% of patients experiencing neurotoxicity in the highdose group and 37% in the low dose group. Furthermore, it was noted that48% of patients experienced neurotoxicity for longer infusion times of24 hours while 54% of patients experienced neurotoxicity for the shorter3 hour infusion.

There is evidence in the literature that higher doses of paclitaxelresult in a higher response rate. The optimal doses and schedules forpaclitaxel are still under investigation. To assess the possibility thatpaclitaxel dose intensity may be important in the induction of diseaseresponse, Reed et al of NCI (Reed E, Bitton R, Sarosy G. Kohn E:Paclitaxel dose intensity. Journal of Infusional Chemotherapy 6:59-63,1996) analyzed the available phase II trial data in the treatment ofovarian cancer and breast cancer. Their results suggest that therelationship between objective disease response and paclitaxel doseintensity in recurrent ovarian cancer is highly statisticallysignificant with two-side p value of 0.022. The relationship in breastcancer is even stronger, with a two-sided p value of 0.004. At 135mg/m²/21 days, the objective response rate was 13.2%; and at 250mg/m²/21 days, the objective response rate was 35.9%. The response rateseen at the intermediate dose of 175 mg/m² was linear with the 135 mg/m²and 250 mg/m² results and the linear regression analysis shows acorrelation coefficient for these data of 0.946 (Reed et al, 1996).

In a study by Holmes (Holmes F A, Walters R S, Theriault R L, et al:Phase II trial of Taxol, an active drug in the treatment of metastaticbreast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 83:1797-1805, 1991), and at MSKCC(Reichman B S, Seidman A D, Crown J P A, et al: Paclitaxel andrecombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor as initialchemotherapy for metastatic breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 11:1943-1951,1993), it was shown that higher doses of TAXOL up to 250 mg/m² producedgreater responses (60%) than the 175 mg/m² dose (26%) currently approvedfor TAXOL. These results however, have not been reproduced due to highertoxicity at these higher doses. These studies, however, bear proof tothe potential increase in response rate at increased doses ofpaclitaxel.

Since premedication is required for Taxol, that often necessitatesovernight stays of the patient at the hospital, it is highly desirableto develop a formulation of paclitaxel that obviates the need forpremedication.

Since premedication is required for Taxol, due to HSR's associated withadministration of the drug, it is highly desirable to develop aformulation of paclitaxel that does not cause hypersensitivityreactions. It is also desirable to develop a formulation of paclitaxelthat does not cause neurotoxicity.

Since Taxol infusions are generally preceded by premedication, andrequire post-infusion monitoring and record keeping, that oftennecessitates overnight stays of the patient at the hospital, it ishighly desirable to develop a formulation of paclitaxel which wouldallow for recipients to be treated on an out-patient basis.

Since it has been demonstrated that higher doses of Taxol achieveimproved clinical responses albeit with higher toxicity, it is desirableto develop a formulation of paclitaxel which can achieve these doseswithout this toxicity.

Since it has been demonstrated that the dose limiting toxicity of Taxolis cerebral and neurotoxicity, it is desirable to develop a formulationof paclitaxel that decreases such toxicity.

It is also desirable to eliminate premedication since this increasespatient discomfort and increases the expense and duration of treatment.

It is also desirable to shorten the duration of infusion of Taxol,currently administered in 3 hours-24 hours to minimize patient stay atthe hospital or clinic.

Since Taxol is currently approved for administration at concentrationsbetween 0.6-1.2 mg/ml and a typical dose in humans is about 250-350 mg,this results in infusion volumes typically greater than 300 ml. It isdesirable to reduce these infusion volumes, by developing formulationsof paclitaxel that are stable at higher concentrations so as to reducethe time of administration.

Since infusion of Taxol is limited to the use of special I.V. tubing andbags or bottles due to the leaching of plasticizers by the cremaphor inthe Taxol formulation, it is desirable to develop a formulation ofpaclitaxel that does not have cremaphor and does not leach potentiallytoxic materials from the conventionally used plastic tubings or bagsused for intravenous infusion.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Thus it is an object of this invention to deliver pharmacologicallyactive agents (e.g., Taxol, taxane, Taxotere, and the like) inunmodified form in a composition that does not cause allergic reactionsdue to the presence of added emulsifiers and solubilizing agents, as arecurrently employed in drug delivery.

It is a further object of the present invention to deliverpharmacologically active agents in a composition of microparticles ornanoparticles, optionally suspended in a suitable biocompatible liquid.

It is yet another object of the present invention to provide methods forthe formation of submicron particles (nanoparticles) ofpharmacologically active agents by a solvent evaporation technique froman oil-in-water emulsion. Some methods use proteins as stabilizingagents. Some methods are performed in the absence of any conventionalsurfactants, and in the absence of any polymeric core material.

These and other objects of the invention will become apparent uponreview of the specification and claims.

In accordance with the present invention, we have discovered thatsubstantially water insoluble pharmacologically active agents can bedelivered in the form of microparticles or nanoparticles that aresuitable for parenteral administration in aqueous suspension. This modeof delivery obviates the necessity for administration of substantiallywater insoluble pharmacologically active agents (e.g., Taxol) in anemulsion containing, for example, ethanol and polyethoxylated castoroil, diluted in normal saline (see, for example, Norton et al., inAbstracts of the 2nd National Cancer Institute Workshop on Taxol &Taxus, Sep. 23-24, 1992). A disadvantage of such known compositions istheir propensity to produce allergic side effects.

Thus, in accordance with the present invention, there are providedmethods for the formation of nanoparticles of pharmacologically activeagents by a solvent evaporation technique from an oil-in-water emulsionprepared under a variety of conditions. For example, high shear forces(e.g., sonication, high pressure homogenization, or the like) may beused in the absence of any conventional surfactants, and without the useof any polymeric core material to form the matrix of the nanoparticle.Instead, proteins (e.g., human serum albumin) are employed as astabilizing agent. In an alternative method, nanoparticles may be formedwithout the need for any high shear forces, simply by selectingmaterials that spontaneously form microemulsions.

The invention further provides a method for the reproducible formationof unusually small nanoparticles (less than 200 nm diameter), which canbe sterile-filtered through a 0.22 micron filter. This is achieved byaddition of a water soluble solvent (e.g. ethanol) to the organic phaseand by carefully selecting the type of organic phase, the phase fractionand the drug concentration in the organic phase. The ability to formnanoparticles of a size that is filterable by 0.22 micron filters is ofgreat importance and significance, since formulations which contain asignificant amount of any protein (e.g., albumin), cannot be sterilizedby conventional methods such as autoclaving, due to the heat coagulationof the protein.

In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, we havedeveloped compositions useful for in vivo delivery of substantiallywater insoluble pharmacologically active agents. Invention compositionscomprise substantially water insoluble pharmacologically active agents(as a solid or liquid) contained within a polymeric shell. The polymericshell is a crosslinked biocompatible polymer. The polymeric shell,containing substantially water insoluble pharmacologically active agentstherein, can then be suspended in a biocompatible aqueous liquid foradministration.

The invention further provides a drug delivery system in which part ofthe molecules of pharmacologically active agent are bound to the protein(e.g., human serum albumin), and are therefore immediately bioavailableupon administration to a mammal. The other portion of thepharmacologically active agent is contained within nanoparticles coatedby protein. The nanoparticles containing the pharmacologically activeagent are present as a pure active component, without dilution by anypolymeric matrix.

A large number of conventional pharmacologically active agents circulatein the blood stream bound to carrier proteins (through hydrophobic orionic interactions) of which the most common example is serum albumin.Invention methods and compositions produced thereby provide for apharmacologically active agent that is “pre-bound” to a protein (throughhydrophobic or ionic interactions) prior to administration.

The present disclosure demonstrates both of the above-described modes ofbioavailability for Taxol (Paclitaxel), an anticancer drug capable ofbinding to human serum albumin (see, for example, Kumar et al., inResearch Communications in Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology 80:337(1993)). The high concentration of albumin in invention particles,compared to Taxol, provides a significant amount of the drug in the formof molecules bound to albumin, which is also the natural carrier of thedrug in the blood stream.

In addition, advantage is taken of the capability of human serum albuminto bind Taxol, as well as other drugs, which enhances the capability ofTaxol to absorb on the surface of the particles. Since albumin ispresent on the colloidal drug particles (formed upon removal of theorganic solvent), formation of a colloidal dispersion which is stablefor prolonged periods is facilitated, due to a combination of electricalrepulsion and steric stabilization.

In accordance with the present invention, there are also providedsubmicron particles in powder form, which can easily be reconstituted inwater or saline. The powder is obtained after removal of water bylyophilization. Human serum albumin serves as the structural componentof some invention nanoparticles, and also as a cryoprotectant andreconstitution aid. The preparation of particles filterable through a0.22 micron filter according to the invention method as describedherein, followed by drying or lyophilization, produces a sterile solidformulation useful for intravenous injection.

The invention provides, in a particular aspect, a composition ofanti-cancer drugs, e.g., Taxol, in the form of nanoparticles in a liquiddispersion or as a solid which can be easily reconstituted foradministration. Due to specific properties of certain drugs, e.g.,Taxol, such compositions can not be obtained by conventional solventevaporation methods that rely on the use of surfactants. In the presenceof various surfactants, very large drug crystals (e.g., size of about 5microns to several hundred microns) are formed within a few minutes ofstorage, after the preparation process. The size of such crystals istypically much greater than the allowed size for intravenous injection.

While it is recognized that particles produced according to theinvention can be either crystalline, amorphous, or a mixture thereof, itis generally preferred that the drug be present in the formulation in anamorphous form. This would lead to greater ease of dissolution andabsorption, resulting in better bioavailability.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The anticancer agent paclitaxel (TAXOL, Bristol Myers Squibb, BMS) hasremarkable clinical activity in a number of human cancers includingcancers of the ovary, breast, lung, esophagus, head and neck region,bladder and lymphomas. It is currently approved for the treatment ofovarian carcinoma where it is used in combination with cisplatin and formetastatic breast cancer that has failed prior treatment with onecombination chemotherapy regimen. The major limitation of Taxol is itspoor solubility and consequently the BMS formulation contains 50%Cremaphor EL and 50% ethanol as the solubilizing vehicle. Each vial ofthis formulation contains 30 mg of paclitaxel dissolved at aconcentration of 6 mg/ml. Prior to intravenous administration, thisformulation must be diluted 1:10 in saline for a final dosing solutioncontaining 0.6 mg/ml of paclitaxel. This formulation has been linked tosevere hypersensitivity reactions in animals (Lorenz et al., AgentsActions 1987, 7, 63-67) and humans (Weiss et al., J. Clin. Oncol. 1990,8, 1263-68) and consequently requires premedication of patients withcorticosteroids (dexamethasone) and antihistamines. The large dilutionresults in large volumes of infusion (typical dose 175 mg/m²) up to 1liter and infusion times ranging from 3 hours to 24 hours. Thus, thereis a need for an alternative less toxic formulation for paclitaxel.

Capxol™ is a novel, cremophor-free formulation of the anticancer drugpaclitaxel. The inventors, based on animal studies, believe that acremophor-free formulation will be significantly less toxic and will notrequire premedication of patients. Premedication is necessary to reducethe hypersensitivity and anaphylaxis that occurs as a result ofcremophor in the currently approved and marketed BMS (Bristol MyersSquibb) formulation of paclitaxel. Capxol™ is a lyophilized powder forreconstitution and intravenous administration. When reconstituted with asuitable aqueous medium such as 0.9% sodium chloride injection or 5%dextrose injection, Capxol™ forms a stable colloidal solution ofpaclitaxel. The size of the colloidal suspension may range from 20 nm to8 microns with a preferred range of about 20-400 nm. The two majorcomponents of Capxol™ are unmodified paclitaxel and human serum albumin(HSA). Since HSA is freely soluble in water, Capxol™ can bereconstituted to any desired concentration of paclitaxel limited only bythe solubility limits for HSA. Thus Capxol™ can be reconstituted in awide range of concentrations ranging from dilute (0.1 mg/ml paclitaxel)to concentrated (20 mg/ml paclitaxel). This can result in fairly smallvolumes of administration.

In accordance with the present invention, there are providedcompositions and methods useful for in vivo delivery of biologics, inthe form of nanoparticles that are suitable for parenteraladministration in aqueous suspension. Invention compositions comprisestabilized by a polymer. The polymer is a biocompatible material, suchas the protein albumin. Use of invention compositions for the deliveryof biologics obviates the necessity for administration of biologics intoxic diluents of vehicles, for example, ethanol and polyethoxylatedcastor oil, diluted in normal saline (see, for example, Norton et al.,in Abstracts of the 2nd National Cancer Institute Workshop on Taxol &Taxus, Sep. 23-24, 1992). A disadvantage of such known compositions istheir propensity to produce severe allergic and other side effects.

It is known that the delivery of biologics in the form of a particulatesuspension allows targeting to organs such as the liver, lungs, spleen,lymphatic circulation, and the like, due to the uptake in these organs,of the particles by the reticuloendothelial (RES) system of cells.Targeting to the RES containing organs may be controlled through the useof particles of varying size, and through administration by differentroutes. But when administered to rats, Capxol was unexpectedly andsurprisingly found to accumulate in tissues other than those containingthe RES such as the prostate, pancreas, testes, seminiferous tubules,bone, etc. to a significantly greater level than Taxol at similar doses.

Thus, it is very surprising that the invention formulation ofpaclitaxel, Capxol, a nanoparticle formulation, concentrates in tissuessuch as the prostate, pancreas, testes, seminiferous tubules, bone,etc., i.e., in organs not containing the RES, at a significantly higherlevel than a non-particulate formulation of paclitaxel such as Taxol.Thus, Capxol may be utilized to treat cancers of these tissues with ahigher efficacy than Taxol. However, the distribution to many othertissues is similar for Capxol and Taxol, therefore Capxol is expected tomaintain anticancer activity at least equal to that of TAXOL in othertissues. The basis for the localization within the prostate could be aresult of the particle size of the formulation (20-400 nm), or thepresence the protein albumin in the formulation which may causelocalization into the prostatic tissue through specific membranereceptors (gp 60, gp 18, gp 13 and the like). It is also likely thatother biocompatible, biodegradable polymers other than albumin may showspecificity to certain tissues such as the prostate resulting in highlocal concentration of paclitaxel in these tissues as a result of theproperties described above. Such biocompatible materials arecontemplated within the scope of this invention. A preferred embodimentof a composition to achieve high local concentrations of paclitaxel inthe prostate is a formulation containing paclitaxel and albumin with aparticle size in the range of 20-400 nm, and free of cremophor. Thisembodiment has also been demonstrated to result in higher levelconcentrations of paclitaxel in the pancreas, kidney, lung, heart, bone,and spleen when compared to Taxol at equivalent doses. These propertiesprovide novel applications of this formulation of paclitaxel includingmethods of lowering testosterone levels, achieving medical orchiectomy,providing high local concentrations to coronary vasculature for thetreatment of restenosis.

It is also very surprising that paclitaxel is metabolized into itsmetabolites at a much slower rate than Taxol when administered asCapxol. This represents increased anticancer activity for longer periodswith similar doses of paclitaxel.

It is also very surprising that when Capxol and Taxol are administeredto rats at equivalent doses of paclitaxel, a much higher degree ofmyelosuppression results for the Taxol group compared to the Capxolgroup. This can result in lower incidences of infections and feverepisodes (e.g., febrile neutropenia). It can also reduce the cycle timein between treatment s which is currently 21 days. Thus the use ofCapxol may provide substantial advantage over Taxol.

It was surprisingly found that the Taxol vehicle, Cremophor/Ethanoldiluted in saline, alone caused strong myelosuppression and causedsevere hypersensitivity reactions and death in several dose groups ofmice. No such reactions were observed for the Capxol groups atequivalent and higher doses. Thus Capxol, a formulation of paclitaxelthat is free of the Taxol vehicle is of substantial advantage.

It is also very surprising that when Capxol and Taxol are administeredto rats at equivalent doses of paclitaxel, a much lower toxicity is seenfor the Capxol compared to Taxol as evidenced by significantly higherLD₅₀ values. This may allow for higher more therapeutically effectivedoses of paclitaxel to be administered to patients. There is evidence inthe literature showing increases response rates to higher doses ofpaclitaxel. The Capxol formulation may allow the administration of thesehigher doses due to lower toxicity and thereby exploit the fullpotential of this drug.

It is also surprising that Capxol, a formulation of the substantiallywater-insoluble drug, paclitaxel, is stable when reconstituted in anaqueous medium at several different concentrations ranging from, but notlimited to 0.1-20 mg/ml. This offers substantial advantage over Taxolduring administration of the drug as it results in smaller infusionvolumes, overcomes instability issues known for Taxol, such asprecipitation, and avoids the use of an in-line filter in the infusionline. Thus Capxol greatly simplifies and improves the administration ofpaclitaxel to patients.

It is also surprising that Capxol when administered to rats atequivalent doses of paclitaxel as Taxol, shows no sign of neurotoxicitywhile Taxol even at low doses shows neurotoxic effects.

The invention formulation further allows the administration ofpaclitaxel, and other substantially water insoluble pharmacologicallyactive agents, employing a much smaller volume of liquid and requiringgreatly reduced administration time relative to administration volumesand times required by prior art delivery systems.

In combination with a biocompatible polymer matrix, the inventionformulation (Capxol) allows for local sustained delivery of paclitaxelwith lower toxicity and prolonged activity.

The above surprising findings for Capxol offer the potential tosubstantially improve the quality of life of patients receivingpaclitaxel.

Potential Advantages of the Capxol™ Formulation for Paclitaxel:

Capxol™ is a lyophilized powder containing only paclitaxel and humanserum albumin. Due to the nature of the colloidal solution formed uponreconstitution of the lyophilized powder toxic emulsifiers such ascremophor (in the BMS formulation of paclitaxel) or polysorbate 80 (asin the Rhone Poulenc formulation of docetaxel) and solvents such asethanol to solubilize the drug are not required. Removing toxicemulsifers will reduce the incidences of severe hypersensitivity andanaphylactic reactions that are known to occur in products TAXOL.

In addition, no premedication with steroids and antihistamines areanticipated prior to administration of the drug.

Due to reduced toxicities, as evidenced by the LD₁₀/LD₅₀ studies, higherdoses may be employed for greater efficacy.

The reduction in myelosuppression (as compared with the BMS formulation)is expected to reduce the period of the treatment cycle (currently 3weeks) and improve the therapeutic outcomes.

Capxol™ can be administered at much higher concentrations (up to 20mg/ml) compared with the BMS formulation (0.6 mg/ml), allowing muchlower volume infusions, and administration as an intravenous bolus.

TAXOL may be infused only with nitroglycerin polyolefin infusion setsdue to leaching of plasticizers from standard infusion tubing into theformulation. Capxol shows no leaching and may be utilized with anystandard infusion tubing. In addition, only glass or polyolefincontainers are to be used for storing all cremophor containingsolutions. The Capxol formulation has no such limitations.

A recognized problem with TAXOL formulation is the precipitation ofpaclitaxel in indwelling catheters. This results in erratic and poorlycontrolled dosing. Due to the inherent stability of the colloidalsolution of the new formulation, Capxol™, the problem of precipitationis alleviated.

The administration of Taxol requires the use of in line filters toremove precipitates and other particulate matter. Capxol has no suchrequirement due to inherent stability.

The literature suggests that particles in the low hundred nanometer sizerange preferentially partition into tumors through leaky blood vesselsat the tumor site. The colloidal particles of paclitaxel in the Capxol™formulation may therefore show a preferential targeting effect, greatlyreducing the side effects of paclitaxel administered in the BMSformulation.

Therefore, it is a primary object of the present invention to provide anew formulation of paclitaxel that provides the above desirablecharacteristics.

It is another object of the present invention to provide a newformulation of paclitaxel that localizes paclitaxel in certain tissues,thereby providing higher anticancer activity at these sites.

It is another object of the invention to administer paclitaxel atconcentrations greater than about 2 mg/ml in order to reduce infusionvolumes.

It is also an object of the invention to provide a formulation ofpaclitaxel that is free of the Taxol vehicle.

It is yet another object of the invention to provide a formulation ofpaclitaxel that improves the quality of life of patients receiving Taxolfor the treatment of cancer.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 presents the results of intravenous administration of paclitaxelnanoparticles to tumor bearing mice (n=5 in each group), showing acomplete regression of tumor in the treatment group (▪) compared with acontrol group receiving saline (●). Virtually uncontrolled tumor growthis seen in the control group. Dose for the treatment group is 20 mg/kgof paclitaxel administered as an intravenous bolus for five consecutivedays.

FIG. 2 presents the results of intraperitoneal administration ofpaclitaxel nanoparticles in rats that have developed arthritis in theirpaws following intradermal injection of collagen. Paw volumes aremeasured and indicate the severity of the disease. The paw volumes arenormalized to 100% at the beginning of treatment. Day 0 represents theinitiation of treatment. There are 3 groups—control group receivingsaline (n=2, shown as a thin line and labelled in the figure a“non-treatment”); a first treatment group receiving paclitaxelnanoparticles at a dose of 1 mg/kg (n=4, shown as a heavy line andlabelled in the figure as “paclitaxel nanoparticles 1.0 mg/kg”), and asecond treatment group receiving combination therapy of paclitaxelnanoparticles at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg and prednisone at a dose of 0.2mg/kg (n=4, shown as a heavy line and labelled in the figure as“prednisone 0.2 mg/kg+paclitaxel nanoparticles 0.5 mg/kg”). The twotreatment groups show a dramatic reduction in paw volume with time,indicating a regression of arthritis, while the control group showed anincrease in paw volume over the same period.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with the present invention, there are provided methods forreducing the hematologic toxicity of paclitaxel in a subject undergoingtreatment with paclitaxel, said method comprising systemicallyadministering said paclitaxel to said subject in a pharmaceuticallyacceptable formulation at a does of at least 175 mg/m² over anadministration period of no greater than two hours.

[[also parrot other independent claims]]

In accordance with the present invention, there are also providedmethods for the preparation of substantially water insolublepharmacologically active agents for in vivo delivery, said methodcomprising:

a) combining

-   -   i) an organic solvent having said active agent dissolved        therein;    -   ii) water or an aqueous solution;    -   iii) a surfactant; and    -   iv) a cosurfactant

that spontaneously form a microemulsion; and

b) removing said organic solvent to yield a suspension of nanoparticlesof said active agent in said water.

In accordance with a still further embodiment of the present invention,there is provided a drug delivery system comprising particles of a solidor liquid, substantially water insoluble pharmacologically active agent,coated with a protein,

wherein said protein coating has free protein associated therewith,

wherein a portion of said pharmacologically active agent is containedwithin said protein coating and a portion of said pharmacologicallyactive agent is associated with said free protein, and

wherein the average diameter of said particles is no greater than about1 micron.

Compositions produced by the above-described methods are particularlyadvantageous as they have been observed to provide a very low toxicityform of a variety of pharmacologically active agents. Also describedherein are other methods of making low toxicity forms ofpharmacologically active agents, e.g., paclitaxel.

In a preferred embodiment, the average diameter of the above-describedparticles is no greater than about 200 nm. Such particles areparticularly advantageous as they can be subjected to sterilefiltration, thereby obviating the need for more vigorous treatment toachieve sterilization of solutions containing the desiredpharmacologically active agent.

As used herein, unless specified to the contrary, the term “paclitaxel”encompasses all forms, modifications and derivatives of paclitaxel,e.g., taxotere, and the like.

Capxol™ is the trademark for the paclitaxel formulation to be marketedby Applicants' assignees. As used herein, Capxol™ is merely a shorthandmeans of reference to protein-coated paclitaxel nanoparticles producedby the method of Example 1. Capxol™ is a proprietary new, cremaphor-freeformulation of the anticancer drug paclitaxel. Inventors, based onanimal studies, believe that a cremaphor-free formulation will besignificantly less toxic and will not require premedication of patients.Premedication is necessary to reduce the hypersensitivity andanaphylaxis that occurs as a result of cremaphor in the currentlyapproved and marketed BMS (Bristol Myers Squibb) formulation ofpaclitaxel. Capxol™ is a lyophilized powder for reconstitution andintravenous administration. Each vial of Capxol™ contains 30 mg ofpaclitaxel and approximately 400 mg of human serum albumin. Whenreconstituted with a suitable aqueous medium such as 0.9% sodiumchloride injection or 5% dextrose injection, Capxol™ forms a stablecolloidal solution of paclitaxel. The size of the colloidalnanoparticles is typically less than 400 nm. The nanoparticles areprepared by high pressure homogenization of a solution of USP humanserum albumin and a solution of paclitaxel in an organic solvent. Thesolvent is then removed to generate the colloidal suspension or solutionof paclitaxel in human albumin. This suspension is sterile filtered andlyophilized to obtain Capxol™. The formulation contains no other addedexcipients or stabilizers. The sterility of the product is assured by anaseptic manufacturing process and/or by sterile filtration. The twomajor components of Capxol™ are unmodified paclitaxel and human serumalbumin (HSA). Since HSA is freely soluble in water, Capxol™ can bereconstituted to any desired concentration of paclitaxel limited only bythe solubility limits for HSA. Thus Capxol™ can be reconstituted in awide range of concentrations ranging from dilute (0.1 mg/ml paclitaxel)to concentrated (20 mg/ml paclitaxel). This can result in fairly smallvolumes of administration.

As used herein, the term “in vivo delivery” refers to delivery of apharmacologically active agent by such routes of administration as oral,intravenous, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, intrathecal, intramuscular,inhalational, topical, transdermal, suppository (rectal), pessary(vaginal), intra urethral, intraportal, intrahepatic, intra-arterial,intraumoral, and the like.

As used herein, the term “micron” refers to a unit of measure of oneone-thousandth of a millimeter.

As used herein, the term “biocompatible” describes a substance that doesnot appreciably alter or affect in any adverse way, the biologicalsystem into which it is introduced.

Substantially water insoluble pharmacologically active agentscontemplated for use in the practice of the present invention includepharmaceutically active agents, diagnostic agents, agents of nutritionalvalue, and the like. Examples of pharmaceutically active agents include:

-   -   analgesics/antipyretics (e.g., aspirin, acetaminophen,        ibuprofen, naproxen sodium, buprenorphine hydrochloride,        propoxyphene hydrochloride, propoxyphene napsylate, meperidine        hydrochloride, hydromorphone hydrochloride, morphine sulfate,        oxycodone hydrochloride, codeine phosphate, dihydrocodeine        bitartrate, pentazocine hydrochloride, hydrocodone bitartrate,        levorphanol tartrate, diflunisal, trolamine salicylate,        nalbuphine hydrochloride, mefenamic acid, butorphanol tartrate,        choline salicylate, butalbital, phenyltoloxamine citrate,        diphenhydramine citrate, methotrimeprazine, cinnamedrine        hydrochloride, meprobamate, and the like);    -   anesthetics (e.g., cyclopropane, enflurane, halothane,        isoflurane, methoxyflurane, nitrous oxide, propofol, and the        like);    -   antiasthmatics (e.g., Azelastine, Ketotifen, Traxanox,        Amlexanox, Cromolyn, Ibudilast, Montelukast, Nedocromil,        Oxatomide, Pranlukast, Seratrodast, Suplatast Tosylate,        Tiaramide, Zafirlukast, Zileuton, Beclomethasone, Budesonide,        Dexamethasone, Flunisolide, Trimcinolone Acetonide, and the        like);    -   antibiotics (e.g., neomycin, streptomycin, chloramphenicol,        cephalosporin, ampicillin, penicillin, tetracycline, and the        like);    -   antidepressants (e.g., nefopam, oxypertine, doxepin        hydrochloride, amoxapine, trazodone hydrochloride, amitriptyline        hydrochloride, maprotiline hydrochloride, phenelzine sulfate,        desipramine hydrochloride, nortriptyline hydrochloride,        tranylcypromine sulfate, fluoxetine hydrochloride, doxepin        hydrochloride, imipramine hydrochloride, imipramine pamoate,        nortriptyline, amitriptyline hydrochloride, isocarboxazid,        desipramine hydrochloride, trimipramine maleate, protriptyline        hydrochloride, and the like);    -   antidiabetics (e.g., biguanides, hormones, sulfonylurea        derivatives, and the like);    -   antifungal agents (e.g., griseofulvin, keloconazole,        amphotericin B, Nystatin, candicidin, and the like);    -   antihypertensive agents (e.g., propanolol, propafenone,        oxyprenolol, Nifedipine, reserpine, trimethaphan camsylate,        phenoxybenzamine hydrochloride, pargyline hydrochloride,        deserpidine, diazoxide, guanethidine monosulfate, minoxidil,        rescinnamine, sodium nitroprusside, rauwolfia serpentina,        alseroxylon, phentolamine mesylate, reserpine, and the like);    -   anti-inflammatories (e.g., (non-steroidal) indomethacin,        naproxen, ibuprofen, ramifenazone, piroxicam, (steroidal)        cortisone, dexamethasone, fluazacort, hydrocortisone,        prednisolone, prednisone, and the like);    -   antineoplastics (e.g., adriamycin, cyclophosphamide,        actinomycin, bleomycin, duanorubicin, doxorubicin, epirubicin,        mitomycin, methotrexate, fluorouracil, carboplatin, carmustine        (BCNU), methyl-CCNU, cisplatin, etoposide, interferons,        camptothecin and derivatives thereof, phenesterine, Taxol and        derivatives thereof, taxotere and derivatives thereof,        vinblastine, vincristine, tamoxifen, etoposide, piposulfan, and        the like);    -   antianxiety agents (e.g., lorazepam, buspirone hydrochloride,        prazepam, chlordiazepoxide hydrochloride, oxazepam, clorazepate        dipotassium, diazepam, hydroxyzine pamoate, hydroxyzine        hydrochloride, alprazolam, droperidol, halazepam, chlormezanone,        dantrolene, and the like);    -   immunosuppressive agents (e.g., cyclosporine, azathioprine,        mizoribine, FK506 (tacrolimus), and the like);    -   antimigraine agents (e.g., ergotamine tartrate, propanolol        hydrochloride, isometheptene mucate, dichloralphenazone, and the        like);    -   sedatives/hypnotics (e.g., barbiturates (e.g., pentobarbital,        pentobarbital sodium, secobarbital sodium), benzodiazapines        (e.g., flurazepam hydrochloride, triazolam, tomazeparm,        midazolam hydrochloride, and the like);    -   antianginal agents (e.g., beta-adrenergic blockers, calcium        channel blockers (e.g., nifedipine, diltiazem hydrochloride, and        the like), nitrates (e.g., nitroglycerin, isosorbide dinitrate,        pentaerythritol tetranitrate, erythrityl tetranitrate, and the        like));    -   antipsychotic agents (e.g., haloperidol, loxapine succinate,        loxapine hydrochloride, thioridazine, thioridazine        hydrochloride, thiothixene, fluphenazine hydrochloride,        fluphenazine decanoate, fluphenazine enanthate, trifluoperazine        hydrochloride, chlorpromazine hydrochloride, perphenazine,        lithium citrate, prochlorperazine, and the like);    -   antimanic agents (e.g., lithium carbonate);    -   antiarrhythmics (e.g., bretylium tosylate, esmolol        hydrochloride, verapamil hydrochloride, amiodarone, encainide        hydrochloride, digoxin, digitoxin, mexiletine hydrochloride,        disopyramide phosphate, procainamide hydrochloride, quinidine        sulfate, quinidine gluconate, quinidine polygalacturonate,        flecainide acetate, tocainide hydrochloride, lidocaine        hydrochloride, and the like);    -   antiarthritic agents (e.g., phenylbutazone, sulindac,        penicillamine, salsalate, piroxicam, azathioprine, indomethacin,        meclofenamate sodium, gold sodium thiomalate, ketoprofen,        auranofin, aurothioglucose, tolmetin sodium, and the like);    -   antigout agents (e.g., colchicine, allopurinol, and the like);    -   anticoagulants (e.g., heparin, heparin sodium, warfarin-sodium,        and the like);    -   thrombolytic agents (e.g., urokinase, streptokinase, altoplase,        and the like);    -   antifibrinolytic agents (e.g., aminocaproic acid);    -   hemorheologic agents (e.g., pentoxifylline);    -   antiplatelet agents (e.g., aspirin, empirin, ascriptin, and the        like);    -   anticonvulsants (e.g., valproic acid, divalproate sodium,        phenyloin, phenyloin sodium, clonazepam, primidone,        phenobarbitol, phenobarbitol sodium, carbamazepine, amobarbital        sodium, methsuximide, metharbital, mephobarbital, mephenyloin,        phensuximide, paramethadione, ethotoin, phenacemide,        secobarbitol sodium, clorazepate dipotassium, trimethadione, and        the like);    -   antiparkinson agents (e.g., ethosuximide, and the like);    -   antihistamines/antipruritics (e.g., hydroxyzine hydrochloride,        diphenhydramine hydrochloride, chlorpheniramine maleate,        brompheniramine maleate, cyproheptadine hydrochloride,        terfenadine, clemastine fumarate, triprolidine hydrochloride,        carbinoxamine maleate, diphenylpyraline hydrochloride,        phenindamine tartrate, azatadine maleate, tripelennamine        hydrochloride, dexchlorpheniramine maleate, methdilazine        hydrochloride, trimprazine tartrate and the like);    -   agents useful for calcium regulation (e.g., calcitonin,        parathyroid hormone, and the like);    -   antibacterial agents (e.g., amikacin sulfate, aztreonam,        chloramphenicol, chloramphenicol palmitate, chloramphenicol        sodium succinate, ciprofloxacin hydrochloride, clindamycin        hydrochloride, clindamycin palmitate, clindamycin phosphate,        metronidazole, metronidazole hydrochloride, gentamicin sulfate,        lincomycin hydrochloride, tobramycin sulfate, vancomycin        hydrochloride, polymyxin B sulfate, colistimethate sodium,        colistin sulfate, and the like);    -   antiviral agents (e.g., interferon gamma, zidovudine, amantadine        hydrochloride, ribavirin, acyclovir, and the like);    -   antimicrobials (e.g., cephalosporins (e.g., cefazolin sodium,        cephradine, cefaclor, cephapirin sodium, ceftizoxime sodium,        cefoperazone sodium, cefotetan disodium, cefutoxime azotil,        cefotaxime sodium, cefadroxil monohydrate, ceftazidime,        cephalexin, cephalothin sodium, cephalexin hydrochloride        monohydrate, cefamandole nafate, cefoxitin sodium, cefonicid        sodium, ceforanide, ceftriaxone sodium, ceftazidime, cefadroxil,        cephradine, cefuroxime sodium, and the like), penicillins (e.g.,        ampicillin, amoxicillin, penicillin G benzathine, cyclacillin,        ampicillin sodium, penicillin G potassium, penicillin V        potassium, piperacillin sodium, oxacillin sodium, bacampicillin        hydrochloride, cloxacillin sodium, ticarcillin disodium,        azlocillin sodium, carbenicillin indanyl sodium, penicillin G        potassium, penicillin G procaine, methicillin sodium, nafcillin        sodium, and the like), erythromycins (e.g., erythromycin        ethylsuccinate, erythromycin, erythromycin estolate,        erythromycin lactobionate, erythromycin siearate, erythromycin        ethylsuccinate, and the like), tetracyclines (e.g., tetracycline        hydrochloride, doxycycline hyclate, minocycline hydrochloride,        and the like), and the like);    -   anti-infectives (e.g., GM-CSF);    -   bronchodialators (e.g., sympathomimetics (e.g., epinephrine        hydrochloride, metaproterenol sulfate, terbutaline sulfate,        isoetharine, isoetharine mesylate, isoetharine hydrochloride,        albuterol sulfate, albuterol, bitolterol, mesylate isoproterenol        hydrochloride, terbutaline sulfate, epinephrine bitartrate,        metaproterenol sulfate, epinephrine, epinephrine bitartrate),        anticholinergic agents (e.g., ipratropium bromide), xanthines        (e.g., aminophylline, dyphylline, metaproterenol sulfate,        aminophylline), mast cell stabilizers (e.g., cromolyn sodium),        inhalant corticosteroids (e.g., flurisolidebeclomethasone        dipropionate, beclomethasone dipropionate monohydrate),        salbutamol, beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP), ipratropium        bromide, budesonide, ketotifen, salmeterol, xinafoate,        terbutaline sulfate, triamcinolone, theophylline, nedocromil        sodium, metaproterenol sulfate, albuterol, flunisolide, and the        like);    -   hormones (e.g., androgens (e.g., danazol, testosterone        cypionate, fluoxymesterone, ethyltostosterone, testosterone        enanihate, methyltestosterone, fluoxymesterone, testosterone        cypionate), estrogens (e.g., estradiol, estropipate, conjugated        estrogens), progestins (e.g., methoxyprogesterone acetate,        norethindrone acetate), corticosteroids (e.g., triamcinolone,        betamethasone, betamethasone sodium phosphate, dexamethasone,        dexamethasone sodium phosphate, dexamethasone acetate,        prednisone, methylprednisolone acetate suspension, triamcinolone        acetonide, methylprednisolone, prednisolone sodium phosphate        methylprednisolone sodium succinate, hydrocortisone sodium        succinate, methylprednisolone sodium succinate, triamcinolone        hexacatonide, hydrocortisone, hydrocortisone cypionate,        prednisolone, fluorocortisone acetate, paramethasone acetate,        prednisolone tebulate, prednisolone acetate, prednisolone sodium        phosphate, hydrocortisone sodium succinate, and the like),        thyroid hormones (e.g., levothyroxine sodium) and the like), and        the like;    -   hypoglycemic agents (e.g., human insulin, purified beef insulin,        purified pork insulin, glyburide, chlorpropamide, glipizide,        tolbutamide, tolazamide, and the like);    -   hypolipidemic agents (e.g., clofibrate, dextrothyroxine sodium,        probucol, lovastatin, niacin, and the like);    -   proteins (e.g., DNase, alginase, superoxide dismutase, lipase,        and the like);    -   nucleic acids (e.g., sense or anti-sense nucleic acids encoding        any therapeutically useful protein, including any of the        proteins described herein, and the like);    -   agents useful for erythropoiesis stimulation (e.g.,        erythropoietin);    -   antiulcer/antireflux agents (e.g., famotidine, cimetidine,        ranitidine hydrochloride, and the like);    -   antinauseants/antiemetics (e.g., meclizine hydrochloride,        nabilone, prochlorperazine, dimenhydrinate, promethazine        hydrochloride, thiethylperazine, scopolamine, and the like);    -   oil-soluble vitamins (e.g., vitamins A, D, E, K, and the like);        and    -   as well as other drugs such as mitotane, visadine,        halonitrosoureas, anthrocyclines, ellipticine, and the like.

Examples of diagnostic agents contemplated for use in the practice ofthe present invention include ultrasound contrast agents, radiocontrastagents (e.g., iodo-octanes, halocarbons, renografin, and the like),magnetic contrast agents (e.g., fluorocarbons, lipid solubleparamagnetic compounds, and the like), as well as other diagnosticagents which cannot readily be delivered without some physical and/orchemical modification to accommodate the substantially water insolublenature thereof.

Examples of agents of nutritional value contemplated for use in thepractice of the present invention include amino acids, sugars, proteins,carbohydrates, fat-soluble vitamins (e.g., vitamins A, D, E, K, and thelike) or fat, or combinations of any two or more thereof.

A. Formation of Nanoparticles Using High Shear Homogenization

Key differences between the pharmacologically active agents contained ina polymeric shell according to the invention and protein microspheres ofthe prior art are in the nature of formation and the final state of theprotein after formation of the particle, and its ability to carry poorlyaqueous-soluble or substantially aqueous-insoluble agents. In accordancewith the present invention, the polymer (e.g., a protein) may becrosslinked as a result of exposure to high shear conditions in a highpressure homogenizer. High shear is used to disperse a dispersing agentcontaining dissolved or suspended pharmacologically active agent into anaqueous solution of a biocompatible polymer, optionally bearingsulfhydryl or disulfide groups (e.g., albumin) whereby a shell ofcrosslinked polymer is formed around fine droplets of non-aqueousmedium. The high shear conditions produce cavitation in the liquid thatcauses tremendous local heating and results in the formation ofsuperoxide ions that are capable of crosslinking the polymer, forexample, by oxidizing the sulfhydryl residues (and/or disruptingexisting disulfide bonds) to form new, crosslinking disulfide bonds.

In contrast to the invention process, the prior art method ofglutaraldehyde crosslinking is nonspecific and essentially reactive withany nucleophilic group present in the protein structure (e.g., aminesand hydroxyls). Heat denaturation as taught by the prior artsignificantly and irreversibly alters protein structure. In contrast,disulfide formation contemplated by the present invention does notsubstantially denature the protein. In addition, particles ofsubstantially water insoluble pharmacologically active agents containedwithin a shell differ from crosslinked or heat denatured proteinmicrospheres of the prior art because the polymeric shell produced bythe invention process is relatively thin compared to the diameter of thecoated particle. It has been determined (by transmission electronmicroscopy) that the “shell thickness” of the polymeric coat isapproximately 25 nanometers for a coated particle having a diameter of 1micron (1000 nanometers). In contrast, microspheres of the prior art donot have protein shells, but rather, have protein dispersed throughoutthe volume of the microsphere.

Thus, in accordance with the present invention, a pharmacologicallyactive agent is dissolved in a suitable solvent (e.g., chloroform,methylene chloride, ethyl acetate, ethanol, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane,butanol, butyl acetate, acetonitrile, acetone, dimethyl sulfoxide,dimethyl formamide, methylpyrrolidinone, or the like, as well asmixtures of any two or more thereof). Additional solvents contemplatedfor use in the practice of the present invention include soybean oil,coconut oil, olive oil, safflower oil, cotton seed oil, sesame oil,orange oil, limonene oil, C₁-C₂₀ alcohols, C₂-C₂₀ esters, C₃-C₂₀ketones, polyethylene glycols, aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatichydrocarbons, halogenated hydrocarbons and combinations thereof.

Unlike conventional methods for nanoparticle formation, a polymer (e.g.polylactic acid) is not dissolved in the solvent. The oil phase employedin the preparation of invention compositions typically contains only thepharmacologically active agent dissolved in solvent.

Next, a protein (e.g., human serum albumin) is added (into the aqueousphase) to act as a stabilizing agent for the formation of stablenanodroplets. Protein is added at a concentration in the range of about0.05 to 25% (w/v), more preferably in the range of about 0.5%-5% (w/v).Unlike conventional methods for nanoparticle formation, no surfactant(e.g. sodium lauryl sulfate, lecithin, tween 80, pluronic F-68 and thelike) is added to the mixture.

Next, an emulsion is formed by homogenization under high pressure andhigh shear forces. Such homogenization is conveniently carried out in ahigh pressure homogenizer, typically operated at pressures in the rangeof about 3,000 up to 60,000 psi. Preferably, such processes are carriedout at pressures in the range of about 6,000 up to 40,000 psi. Theresulting emulsion comprises very small nanodroplets of the nonaqueoussolvent (containing the dissolved pharmacologically active agent) andvery small nanodroplets of the protein stabilizing agent. Acceptablemethods of homogenization include processes imparting high shear andcavitation such as high pressure homogenization, high shear mixers,sonication, high shear impellers, and the like.

Finally, the solvent is evaporated under reduced pressure to yield acolloidal system composed of protein coated nanoparticles ofpharmacologically active agent and protein. Acceptable methods ofevaporation include the use of rotary evaporators, falling filmevaporators, spray driers, freeze driers, and the like. Ultrafiltrationmay also be used for solvent removal.

Following evaporation of solvent, the liquid suspension may be dried toobtain a powder containing the pharmacologically active agent andprotein. The resulting powder can be redispersed at any convenient timeinto a suitable aqueous medium such as saline, buffered saline, water,buffered aqueous media, solutions of amino acids, solutions of vitamins,solutions of carbohydrates, or the like, as well as combinations of anytwo or more thereof, to obtain a suspension that can be administered tomammals. Methods contemplated for obtaining this powder includefreeze-drying, spray drying, and the like.

In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, there isprovided an alternative method for the formation of unusually smallsubmicron particles (nanoparticles), i.e., particles which are less than200 nanometers in diameter. Such particles are capable of beingsterile-filtered before use in the form of a liquid suspension. Theability to sterile-filter the end product of the invention formulationprocess (i.e., the drug particles) is of great importance since it isimpossible to sterilize dispersions which contain high concentrations ofprotein (e.g., serum albumin) by conventional means such as autoclaving.

In order to obtain sterile-filterable particles (i.e., particles <200nm), the pharmacologically active agent is initially dissolved in asubstantially water immiscible organic solvent (e.g., a solvent havingless than about 5% solubility in water, such as, for example,chloroform) at high concentration, thereby forming an oil phasecontaining the pharmacologically active agent. Suitable solvents are setforth above. Unlike conventional methods for nanoparticle formation, apolymer (e.g. polylactic acid) is not dissolved in the solvent. The oilphase employed in the process of the present invention contains only thepharmacologically active agent dissolved in solvent.

Next, a water miscible organic solvent (e.g., a solvent having greaterthan about 10% solubility in water, such as, for example, ethanol) isadded to the oil phase at a final concentration in the range of about1%-99% v/v, more preferably in the range of about 5%-25% v/v of thetotal organic phase. The water miscible organic solvent can be selectedfrom such solvents as ethyl acetate, ethanol, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane,acetonitrile, gutanol, acetone, propylene glycol, glycerol, dimethylsulfoxide, dimethyl formamide, methylpyrrolidinone, and the like.Alternatively, the mixture of water immiscible solvent with the watermiscible solvent is prepared first, followed by dissolution of thepharmaceutically active agent in the mixture.

Next, human serum albumin or any other suitable stabilizing agent asdescribed above is dissolved in aqueous media. This component acts as astabilizing agent for the formation of stable nanodroplets. Optionally,a sufficient amount of the first organic solvent (e.g. chloroform) isdissolved in the aqueous phase to bring it close to the saturationconcentration. A separate, measured amount of the organic phase (whichnow contains the pharmacologically active agent, the first organicsolvent and the second organic solvent) is added to the saturatedaqueous phase, so that the phase fraction of the organic phase isbetween about 0.5%-15% v/v, and more preferably between 1% and 8% v/v.

Next, a mixture composed of micro and nanodroplets is formed byhomogenization at low shear forces. This can be accomplished in avariety of ways, as can readily be identified by those of skill in theart, employing, for example, a conventional laboratory homogenizeroperated in the range of about 2,000 up to about 15,000 rpm. This isfollowed by homogenization under high pressure (i.e., in the range ofabout 3,000 up to 60,000 psi). The resulting mixture comprises anaqueous protein solution (e.g., human serum albumin), the waterinsoluble pharmacologically active agent, the first solvent and thesecond solvent. Finally, solvent is rapidly evaporated under vacuum toyield a colloidal dispersion system (pharmacologically active agent andprotein) in the form of extremely small nanoparticles (i.e., particlesin the range of about 10 nm-200 nm diameter) that can besterile-filtered. The preferred size range of the particles is betweenabout 50 nm-170 nm, depending on the formulation and operationalparameters.

Colloidal systems prepared in accordance with the present invention maybe further converted into powder form by removal of the water therefrom,e.g., by lyophilization or spray drying at a suitable temperature-timeprofile. The protein (e.g., human serum albumin) itself acts as acryoprotectant or lyoprotectant, and the powder is easily reconstitutedby addition of water, saline or buffer, without the need to use suchconventional cryoprotectants as mannitol, sucrose, glycine, and thelike. While not required, it is of course understood that conventionalcryoprotectants may be added to invention formulations if so desired.

The colloidal system of pharmacologically active agent allows for thedelivery of high doses of the pharmacologically active agent inrelatively small volumes. This minimizes patient discomfort at receivinglarge volumes of fluid and minimizes hospital stay. In addition, thewalls of the polymeric shell or coating are generally completelydegradable in vivo by proteolytic enzymes (e.g., when the polymer is aprotein), resulting in substantially no side effects from the deliverysystem, which is in sharp contrast to the significant side effectscaused by current formulations.

A number of biocompatible polymers may be employed in the practice ofthe present invention for the formation of the polymeric shell whichsurrounds the substantially water insoluble pharmacologically activeagents. Essentially any polymer, natural or synthetic, optionallybearing sulfhydryl groups or disulfide bonds within its structure may beutilized for the preparation of a disulfide crosslinked shell aboutparticles of substantially water insoluble pharmacologically activeagents. The sulfhydryl groups or disulfide linkages may be preexistingwithin the polymer structure or they may be introduced by a suitablechemical modification. For example, natural polymers such as proteins,peptides, polynucleic acids, polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose,dextrans, alginates, chitosan, pectin, hyaluronic acid, and the like),proteoglycans, lipoproteins, and so on, are candidates for suchmodification.

Proteins contemplated for use as stabilizing agents in accordance withthe present invention include albumins (which contain 35 cysteineresidues), immunoglobulins, caseins, insulins (which contain 6cysteines), hemoglobins (which contain 6 cysteine residues per a₂β₂unit), lysozymes (which contain 8 cysteine residues), immunoglobulins,alpah-2-acroglobulin, fibronectins, vitronectins, fibrinogens, lipases,and the like. Proteins, peptides, enzymes, antibodies and combinationsthereof, are general classes of stabilizers contemplated for use in thepresent invention.

A presently preferred protein for use as a stabilizing agent is albumin.Optionally, proteins such as alpha-2-macroglobulin, a known opsonin,could be used to enhance uptake of the shell encased particles ofsubstantially water insoluble pharmacologically active agents bymacrophage-like cells, or to enhance the uptake of the shell encasedparticles into the liver and spleen. Specific antibodies may also beutilized to target the nanoparticles to specific locations.

Other functional proteins, such as antibodies or enzymes, which couldfacilitate targeting of biologic to a desired site, can also be used ascomponents of the stabilizing protein.

Similarly, synthetic polymers are also good candidates for formation ofparticles having a polymeric shell. In addition, polyalkylene glycols(e.g., linear or branched chain), polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylates,polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate, polyacrylic acid, polyethyloxazoline,polyacrylamides, polyisopropyl acrylamides, polyvinyl pyrrolidinone,polylactide/glycolide and the like, and combinations thereof, are goodcandidates for the biocompatible polymer in the invention formulation.

Similarly, synthetic polypeptides are also good candidates forstabilizing agents for the substantially water insolublepharmacologically active agents. In addition, contemplated for use inthe practice of the present invention are such materials as syntheticpolyamino acids containing cysteine residues and/or disulfide groups;polyvinyl alcohol modified to contain free sulfhydryl groups and/ordisulfide groups; polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate modified to contain freesulfhydryl groups and/or disulfide groups; polyacrylic acid modified tocontain free sulfhydryl groups and/or disulfide groups;polyethyloxazoline modified to contain free sulfhydryl groups and/ordisulfide groups; polyacrylamide modified to contain free sulfhydrylgroups and/or disulfide groups; polyvinyl pyrrolidinone modified tocontain free sulfhydryl groups and/or disulfide groups; polyalkyleneglycols modified to contain free sulfhydryl groups and/or disulfidegroups; polylactides, polyglycolides, polycaprolactones, or copolymersthereof, modified to contain free sulfhydryl groups and/or disulfidegroups; as well as mixtures of any two or more thereof.

In the preparation of invention compositions, a wide variety of organicmedia can be employed to suspend or dissolve the substantially waterinsoluble pharmacologically active agent. Organic media contemplated foruse in the practice of the present invention include any nonaqueousliquid that is capable of suspending or dissolving the pharmacologicallyactive agent, but does not chemically react with either the polymeremployed to produce the shell, or the pharmacologically active agentitself. Examples include vegetable oils (e.g., soybean oil, olive oil,and the like), coconut oil, safflower oil, cotton seed oil, sesame oil,orange oil, limonene oil, aliphatic, cycloaliphatic, or aromatichydrocarbons having 4-30 carbon atoms (e.g., n-dodecane, n-decane,n-hexane, cyclohexane, toluene, benzene, and the like), aliphatic oraromatic alcohols having 2-30 carbon atoms (e.g., octanol, and thelike), aliphatic or aromatic esters having 2-30 carbon atoms (e.g.,ethyl caprylate (octanoate), and the like), alkyl, aryl, or cyclicethers having 2-30 carbon atoms (e.g., diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran,and the like), alkyl or aryl halides having 1-30 carbon atoms (andoptionally more than one halogen substituent, e.g., CH₃Cl, CH₂Cl₂,CH₂Cl—CH₂Cl, and the like), ketones having 3-30 carbon atoms (e.g.,acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and the like), polyalkylene glycols (e.g.,polyethylene glycol, and the like), or combinations of any two or morethereof.

Especially preferred combinations of organic media contemplated for usein the practice of the present invention typically have a boiling pointof no greater than about 200° C., and include volatile liquids such asdichloromethane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, benzene, ethanol, butanol,butyl acetate, and the like (i.e., solvents that have a high degree ofsolubility for the pharmacologically active agent, and are soluble inthe other organic medium employed), along with a higher molecular weight(less volatile) organic medium. When added to the other organic medium,these volatile additives help to drive the solubility of thepharmacologically active agent into the organic medium. This isdesirable since this step is usually time consuming. Followingdissolution, the volatile component may be removed by evaporation(optionally under vacuum).

Particles of pharmacologically active agent associated with a polymericshell, prepared as described above, are delivered as a suspension in abiocompatible aqueous liquid. This liquid may be selected from water,saline, a solution containing appropriate buffers, a solution containingnutritional agents such as amino acids, sugars, proteins, carbohydrates,vitamins or fat, and the like.

These biocompatible materials may also be employed in several physicalforms such as gels, crosslinked or uncrosslinked to provide matricesfrom which the pharmacologically active ingredient, for examplepaclitaxel, may be released by diffusion and/or degradation of thematrix. Temperature sensitive materials may also be utilized as thedispersing matrix for the invention formulation. Thus for example, theCapxol may be injected in a liquid formulation of the temperaturesensitive material (e.g., copolymers of polyacrylamides or copolymers ofpolyalkylene glycols and polylactide/glycolides) which gel at the tumorsite and provide slow release of Capxol. The Capxol formulation may bedispersed into a matrix of the above mentioned biocompatible polymers toprovide a controlled release formulation of paclitaxel, which throughthe properties of the Capxol formulation (albumin associated withpaclitaxel) results in lower toxicity to brain tissue as well as lowersystemic toxicity as discussed below. This combination of Capxol orother chemotherapeutic agents formulated similar to Capxol together witha biocompatible polymer matrix may be useful for the controlled localdelivery of chemotherapeutic agents for treating solid tumors in thebrain and peritoneum (ovarian cancer) and in local applications to othersolid tumors. These combination formulations are not limited to the useof paclitaxel and may be utilized with a wide variety ofpharmacologically active ingredients including antiinfectives,immunosuppressives and other chemotherapeutics and the like.

Particles colloidal substantially completely contained within apolymeric stabilizing layer l, or associated therewith, prepared asdescribed herein, are delivered neat, or optionally as a suspension in abiocompatible medium. This medium may be selected from water, bufferedaqueous media, saline, buffered saline, optionally buffered solutions ofamino acids, optionally buffered solutions of proteins, optionallybuffered solutions of sugars, optionally buffered solutions ofcarbohydrates, optionally buffered solutions of vitamins, optionallybuffered solutions of synthetic polymers, lipid-containing emulsions,and the like.

In addition, the colloidal particles can optionally be modified by asuitable agent, wherein the agent is associated with the polymeric layerthrough an optional covalent bond. Covalent bonds contemplated for suchlinkages include ester, ether, urethane, diester, amide, secondary ortertiary amine, phosphate ester, sulfate ester, and the like bonds.Suitable agents contemplated for this optional modification of thepolymeric shell include synthetic polymers (polyalkylene glycols (e.g.,linear or branched chain polyethylene glycol), polyvinyl alcohol,polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate, polyacrylic acid, polyethyloxazoline,polyacrylamide, polyvinyl pyrrolidinone, and the like), phospholipids(such as phosphatidyl choline (PC), phosphatidyl ethanolamine (PE),phosphatidyl inositol (PI), sphingomyelin, and the like), proteins (suchas enzymes, antibodies, and the like), polysaccharides (such as starch,cellulose, dextrans, alginates, chitosan, pectin, hyaluronic acid, andthe like), chemical modifying agents (such as pyridoxal 5′-phosphate,derivatives of pyridoxal, dialdehydes, diaspirin esters, and the like),or combinations of any two or more thereof.

Variations on the general theme of stabilized colloidal particles arepossible. A suspension of fine particles of pharmacological agent in abiocompatible dispersing agent could be used (in place of abiocompatible dispersing agent containing dissolved biologic) to producea polymeric shell containing dispersing agent-suspended particles ofbiologic. In other words, the polymeric shell could contain a saturatedsolution of biologic in dispersing agent. Another variation is apolymeric shell containing a solid core of biologic produced byinitially dissolving the biologic in a volatile organic solvent (e.g.benzene), forming the polymeric shell and evaporating the volatilesolvent under vacuum, e.g., in an evaporator, spray drier orfreeze-drying the entire suspension. This results in a structure havinga solid core of biologic surrounded by a polymer coat. This lattermethod is particularly advantageous for delivering high doses ofbiologic in a relatively small volume. In some cases, the biocompatiblematerial forming the shell about the core could itself be a therapeuticor diagnostic agent, e.g., in the case of insulin, which may bedelivered as part of a polymeric shell formed in the process describedabove. In other cases, the polymer forming the shell could participatein the delivery of a biologic, e.g., in the case of antibodies used fortargeting, or in the case of hemoglobin, which may be delivered as partof a polymeric shell formed in the ultrasonic irradiation processdescribed above, thereby providing a blood substitute having a highbinding capacity for oxygen.

Those skilled in the art will recognize that several variations arepossible within the scope and spirit of this aspect of the invention.The organic medium within the polymeric shell may be varied, a largevariety of pharmacologically active agents may be utilized, and a widerange of proteins as well as other natural and synthetic polymers may beused in the formation of the walls of the polymeric shell. Applicationsare also fairly wide ranging. Other than biomedical applications such asthe delivery of drugs, diagnostic agents (in imaging applications),artificial blood and parenteral nutritional agents, the polymeric shellstructures of the invention may be incorporated into cosmeticapplications such as skin creams or hair care products, in perfumeryapplications, in pressure sensitive inks, and the like.

This aspect of the invention will now be described in greater detail byreference to the following non-limiting examples.

EXAMPLE 1 Preparation of Nanoparticles by High Pressure Homogenization

30 mg paclitaxel is dissolved in 3.0 ml methylene chloride. The solutionwas added to 27.0 ml of human serum abumin solution (1% w/v). Themixture was homogenized for 5 minutes at low RPM (Vitris homogenizer,model: Tempest I.Q.) in order to form a crude emulsion, and thentransferred into a high pressure homogenizer (Avestin). Theemulsification was performed at 9000-40,000 psi while recycling theemulsion for at least 5 cycles. The resulting system was transferredinto a Rotary evaporator, and methylene chloride was rapidly removed at40° C., at reduced pressure (30 mm Hg), for 20-30 minutes. The resultingdispersion was translucent, and the typical diameter of the resultingpaclitaxel particles was 160-220 (Z-average, Malvern Zetasizer).

The dispersion was further lyophilized for 48 hrs without adding anycryoprotectant. The resulting cake could be easily reconstituted to theoriginal dispersion by addition of sterile water or saline. The particlesize after reconstitution was the same as before lyophilization.

EXAMPLE 2 Use of Conventional Surfactants and Proteins Results inFormation of Large Crystals

The following example demonstrates the effect of adding surfactantswhich are used in the conventional solvent evaporation method. A seriesof experiments was conducted employing a similar procedure to thatdescribed in Example 1, but a surfactant such as Tween 80 (1% to 10%) isadded to the organic solvent. It was found that after removal of themethylene chloride, a large number of paclitaxel crystals is obtainedhaving an average size of 1-2 micron, as viewed by light microscopy andunder polarized light. The crystals grow within a few hours to form verylarge needle-like crystals, with a size in the range of about 5-15micron. A similar phenomenon is observed with other commonly usedsurfactants, such as Pluronic F-68, Pluronic F-127, Cremophor EL andBrij 58.

From these results it can be concluded that the conventional solventevaporation method utilizing conventional surfactants in combinationwith a protein such as albumin is not suitable for the formation ofsubmicron drug particles (e.g. Paclitaxel) without a polymeric core,while using a polar solvent (e.g., methylene chloride).

EXAMPLE 3 Use of Conventional Surfactants Alone Results in Formation ofLarge Crystals

This example demonstrates that it is not possible to form nanoparticleswhile using conventional surfactants, without a polymeric core material,with pharmacologically active agents which are soluble in polar, waterimmiscible solvents (e.g. chloroform).

30 mg Taxol is dissolved in 0.55 ml chloroform and 0.05 ml ethanol. Thesolution is added to 29.4 ml of Tween 80 solution (1% w/v), which ispresaturated with 1% chloroform. The mixture is homogenized for 5minutes at low RPM (Vitris homogenizer, model: Tempest I.Q.) in order toform a crude emulsion, and then transferred into a high pressurehomogenizer (Avestin). The emulsification is performed at 9000-40,000psi while recycling the emulsion for at least 6 cycles. The resultingsystem was transferred into a Rotary evaporator, and the chloroform wasrapidly removed at 40° C., at reduced pressure (30 mm Hg), for 15-30minutes. The resulting dispersion was opaque, and contained largeneedle-like crystals of the drug. The initial size of the crystals(observed also by polarized light), was 0.7-5 micron. Storage of thedispersion for several hours at room temperature led to further increasein crystal size, and ultimately to precipitation.

EXAMPLE 4 Preparation of Less than 200 nm Sterile-FilterableNanoparticles

This example describes a process by which sterile-filterable drugparticles can be obtained. Thus, 30 mg Taxol is dissolved in 0.55 mlchloroform and 0.05 ml ethanol. The solution is added to 29.4 ml ofhuman serum abumin solution (1% w/v), which is presaturated with 1%chloroform. The mixture is homogenized for 5 minutes at low RPM (Vitrishomogenizer, model: Tempest I.Q.) in order to form a crude emulsion, andthen transferred into a high pressure homogenizer (Avestin). Theemulsification is performed at 9000-40,000 psi while recycling theemulsion for at least 6 cycles. The resulting system is transferred intoa Rotary evaporator, and the chloroform is rapidly removed at 40° C., atreduced pressure (30 mm Hg), for 15-30 minutes. The resulting dispersionis translucent, and the typical diameter of the resulting Taxol articlesis 140-160 nm (Z-average, Malvern Zeta Sizer). The dispersion isfiltered through a 0.22 micron filter (Millipore), without anysignificant change in turbidity, or article size. HPLC analysis of theTaxol content revealed that more than 97% of the Taxol was recoveredafter filtration, thus providing a sterile Taxol dispersion.

The sterile dispersion was further lyophilized for 48 hrs without addingany cryoprotectant. The resulting cake could be easily reconstituted tothe original dispersion by addition of sterile water or saline. Theparticle size after reconstitution was the same as beforelyophilization.

EXAMPLE 5 Preparation of Less than 200 nm Sterile-FilterableNanoparticles

This example describes a process by which sterile-filterable drugparticles can be obtained. Thus, 225 mg Taxol is dissolved in 2.7 mlchloroform and 0.3 ml ethanol. The solution is added to 97 ml of humanserum abumin solution (3% w/v). The mixture is homogenized for 5 minutesat low RPM (Vitris homogenizer, model: Tempest I.Q.) in order to form acrude emulsion, and then transferred into a high pressure homogenizer(Avestin). The emulsification is performed at 9000-40,000 psi whilerecycling the emulsion for at least 6 cycles. The resulting system istransferred into a Rotary evaporator, and the chloroform is rapidlyremoved at 40° C., at reduced pressure (30 mm Hg), for 15-30 minutes.The resulting dispersion is translucent, and the typical diameter of theresulting Taxol particles is 140-160 nm (Z-average, Malvern Zeta Sizer).The dispersion is filtered through a 0.22 micron filter (Sartorius,sartobran 300), without any significant change in turbidity, or particlesize. HPLC analysis of the Taxol content typically revealed that 70-100%of the Taxol could be recovered after filtration, depending on theconditions employed. Thus, a sterile Taxol dispersion was obtained.

The sterile dispersion was aseptically filled into sterile glass vialsand lyophilized without adding any cryoprotectant. The resulting cakecould be easily reconstituted to the original dispersion by addition ofsterile water or saline. The particle size after reconstitution was thesame as before lyophilization.

EXAMPLE 8 Nanoparticle Formation of a Model Drug

30 mg Isoreserpine (a model drug) is dissolved in 3.0 ml methylenechloride. The solution is added to 27.0 ml of human serum abuminsolution (1% w/v). The mixture is homogenized for 5 minutes at low RPM(Vitris homogenizer, model: Tempest I.Q.) in order to form a crudeemulsion, and then transferred into a high pressure homogenizer(Avestin). The emulsification is performed at 9000-18,000 psi whilerecycling the emulsion for at least 0.5 cycles. The resulting system istransferred into a Rotary evaporator, and methylene chloride is rapidlyremoved at 40° C., at reduced pressure (30 mm Hg), for 20-30 minutes.The resulting dispersion is translucent, and the typical diameter of theresulting paclitaxel particles was 120-140 nm (Z-average, MalvernZetasizer). The dispersion was filtered through a 0.22 micron filter(Millipore).

The sterile dispersion was further lyophilized for 48 hrs without addingany cryoprotectant. The resulting cake could be easily reconstituted tothe original dispersion by addition of sterile water or saline. Theparticle size after reconstitution was the same as beforelyophilization.

EXAMPLE 9 Extremely Small Particle Formation with a Model Drug

The effect of ethanol addition on reducing particle size is demonstratedfor Isoreserpine. Thus, 30 mg Isoreserpine is dissolved in 2.7 mlmethylene chloride and 0.3 ml ethanol. The solution is added to 27.0 mlof human serum abumin solution (1% w/v). The mixture is homogenized for5 minutes at low RPM (Vitris homogenizer, model: Tempest I.Q.) in orderto form a crude emulsion, and then transferred into a high pressurehomogenizer (Avestin). The emulsification was performed at 9000-40,000psi while recycling the emulsion for at least 5 cycles. The resultingsystem was transferred into a Rotary evaporator, and methylene chloridewas rapidly removed at 40° C., at reduced pressure (30 mm Hg), for 20-30minutes. The resulting dispersion was translucent, and the typicaldiameter of the resulting paclitaxel particles was 90-110 nm (Z-average,Malvern Zetasizer). The dispersion was filtered through a 0.22 micronfilter (Millipore).

The sterile dispersion was further lyophilized for 48 hrs without addingany cryoprotectant. The resulting cake could be easily reconstituted tothe original dispersion by addition of sterile water or saline. Theparticle size after reconstitution was the same as beforelyophilization.

EXAMPLE 10 Use of a Water miscible Solvent Alone, Supersaturated withDrug—Not Suitable for Invention Process

30 mg Taxol is dispersed in 0.6 ml ethanol. At this concentration (50mg/ml), the Taxol is not completely soluble and forms a supersaturateddispersion. The dispersion is added to 29.4 ml of human serum abuminsolution (1% w/v). The mixture is homogenized for 5 minutes at low RPM(Vitris homogenizer, model: Tempest I.Q.) in order to form a crudedispersion, and then transferred into a high pressure homogenizer(Avestin). The emulsification is performed at 9000-40,000 psi whilerecycling the emulsion for at least 6 cycles. The resulting system istransferred into a Rotary evaporator, and the ethanol is rapidly removedat 40° C., at reduced pressure (30 mm Hg), for 15-30 minutes. Theresulting dispersion particle size is extremely broad, ranging fromabout 250 nm to several microns.

Observation under the microscope revealed the presence of largeparticles and typical needle shaped crystals of Taxol. These particleswere too large for intravenous injection. This experiment demonstratesthat the use of solvents such as ethanol that are freely miscible inwater in the invention process results in the formation of largeparticles with very broad particle size distribution and as such cannotbe used alone for the invention process. Thus the invention processspecifically excludes the use of water miscible solvents when used alonefor the dissolution or dispersion of the drug component. The inventionprocess requires that such solvents, when used, must be mixed withessentially water immiscible solvents to allow production of theinvention nanoparticles.

EXAMPLE 12 Determination of Physical State of Paclitaxel in NanoparticleForm by X-Ray Powder Diffraction

Paclitaxel raw material is usually present as needle shaped crystals ofvarying sizes typically between 5-500 microns. The presence of crystalsin a drug formulation for intravenous injection is obviously detrimentalif crystals are present in size above a few microns due to potentialblockage of capillaries. In addition, the solubility of drug crystals ingeneral would be lower than for amorphous drug, thereby lowering thebioavailability of the drug following intravenous administration. It isalso known that as the loading of the drug in a formulation isincreased, the tendency for crystallization also increases. Thus it isadvantageous that the formulation contain the drug in essentiallyamorphous form.

X-Ray powder diffraction was used to determine the crystalline ornon-crystalline nature of paclitaxel in the lyophilized powderformulation. The following samples were analyzed: Sample 1—Paclitaxelpowder; Sample 2—Lyophilized serum albumin; Sample 3—a physical mixtureof paclitaxel and albumin; and Sample 4—formulated paclitaxel. Eachsample was x-rayed from 2° to 70° 2-theta angles using CuKa radiation,an accelerating voltage of 40 KeV/30 mA, a step size of 0.05° 2-thetaand a data acquisition time of 2.0 seconds per step. Sample 1 showedstrong peaks typical of a crystalline sample. The most intensepaclitaxel peak was located at 5.1° 2-theta. Sample 2 showed broad humpstypical of amorphous material. Sample 3 showed largely the broad humpsof Sample 2, but in addition, the peak at 5.1° 2-theta of paclitaxel wasvisible. Sample 4, the formulated paclitaxel showed no evidence ofcrystallinity characteristic of paclitaxel and appeared identical toSample 2, indicating the presence of substantially amorphouspharmacologically active agent in the formulated sample.

The amorphous nature of the nanoparticles produced according to theinvention stands in direct contrast to the products produced by othermethods described in the art for producing nanoparticles. For example,the use of grinding techniques, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,145,684(Liversidge et al.), and as described by Liversidge-Merisko et al.,Pharmaceutical Research 13 (2):272-278 (1996), produces a substantiallycrystalline product.

EXAMPLE 13 Preparation of Nanoparticles of Cyclosporine (Capsorine I.V.)by High Pressure Homogenization

30 mg cyclosporine is dissolved in 3.0 ml methylene chloride. Thesolution is then added into 27.0 ml of human serum albumin solution (1%w/v). The mixture is homogenized for 5 minutes at low RPM (Vitrishomogenizer model: Tempest I.Q.) in order to form a crude emulsion, andthen transferred into a high pressure homogenizer (Avestin). Theemulsification was performed at 9000-40,000 psi while recycling theemulsion for at least 5 cycles. The resulting system was transferredinto a Rotavap and methylene chloride was rapidly removed at 40° C., atreduced pressure (30 mm Hg), for 20-30 minutes. The resulting dispersionwas translucent and the typical diameter of the resulting cyclosporineparticles was 160-220 (Z-average, Malvern Zetasizer).

The dispersion was further lyophilized for 48 hours, without adding anycryoprotectant. The resulting cake could be easily reconstituted to theoriginal dispersion by addition of sterile water or saline. The particlesize after reconstitution was the same as before lyophilization.

EXAMPLE 14 Preparation of Nanodroplets of Cyclosporine (Capsorine Oral)by High Pressure Homogenization

30 mg cyclosporine is dissolved in 3.0 ml of a suitable oil (sesame oilcontaining 10% orange oil). The solution is then added into 27.0 ml ofhuman serum albumin solution (1% v/w). The mixture is homogenized for 5minutes at low RPM (Vitris homogenizer, model: Tempest I.Q.) in order toform a crude emulsion, and then transferred into a high pressurehomogenizer (Avestin). The emulsification is performed at 9000-40,000psi while recycling the emulsion for at least 5 cycles. The resultingdispersion had a typical diameter of 160-220 (Z-average, MalvernZetasizer).

The dispersion could be used directly or lyophilized for 48 hours byoptionally adding a suitable cryoprotectant. The resulting cake could beeasily reconstituted to the original dispersion by addition of sterilewater or saline.

B. Formation of Nanoparticles Using Sonication

Similar to the use of high shear homogenization, the use of sonicationto form protein-coated nanoparticles of water insolublepharmacologically active agents is believed to operate by crosslinkingproteins through the formation of inter-molecular disulfide bonds. Manyof the advantages over the prior art enjoyed by the high shearhomogenization techniques described above apply equally to thesonication methods described below.

With respect to the organic solvents, proteins, and non-proteinaceouspolymers that may be used in the sonication method, reference is made tothose components described above with respect to the high shearhomogenization method. All of the same components are expected to workequally well in both methods.

This aspect of the invention will now be described in greater detail byreference to the following non-limiting examples.

EXAMPLE 15 Formulation for Inhalation of Anti-Asthmatic Drug

Anti-asthmatic pharmaceuticals have been prepared using microparticletechniques to yield effective formulations for dry powder inhalers(DPI). Starting with a steroidal drug (e.g., beclomethasone,beclomethasone dipropionate, budesonide, dexamethasone, flunisolide,triamcinolone acetonide, and the like), a dry formulation is prepared ofappropriate particle size and release characteristics to ensureefficacious delivery in the respiratory system.

The formulation is prepared using sonication techniques, orhomogenization in which the active drug, dissolved in solvent, isdispersed into an aqueous protein solution to form an emulsion ofnanoparticles. This emulsion is then evaporated to remove solvents,leaving the active drug coated with protein in solution. This liquidsample containing the colloidal drug particles is measured by MalvernZetasizer and gives a Z-average size of 260 nm. In a preferredembodiment, the range of sizes of these colloidal particles is about50-1,000 nm, and more preferably about 70-400 nm.

In this liquid form, other excipients may be dissolved. Such excipientsinclude (but are not limited to) mannitol 0.5-15% lactose 0.1-5%, andmaltodextrin. At this stage, the resulting solution of active drug,protein, and excipient can be either spray-dried or lyophilized andmilled to yield a dry powder. After spray-drying, the dry particle sizeis determined by Malvern Mastersizer as D(v.0.5) of about 1-10 μm. Thepreferred size range for these particles is 0.5-15 μm, with a morepreferred range of 0.7-8 μm.

This spray dried powder is then mixed with an excipient carrier powder.Again, several carriers are available, including lactose, trehalose,Pharmatose 325 M, sucrose, mannitol, and the like. The size of thecarrier powder is significantly larger than that of the formulated drugparticles (˜63-90 μm for lactose, 40-100 μm for Pharmatose).

The efficacy of the dry powder formulation is demonstrated by testingwith an Andersen eight-stage cascade impactor. Results of impactortrials show a fine particle fraction (FPF) of ˜60%. This indicates ahighly effective release of particles, appropriately sized forrespiratory deposition. This FPF is surprisingly high and is a result ofthe formulation composition that contains colloidal nanoparticles of thedrug within larger formulation particles.

This formulation shows the applicability of microparticle and spray-drytechniques in the processing and composing of dry powder formulationsfor aerosol delivery via DPI. The high FPF results shown indicate anefficacious and promising approach to DPI formulations.

EXAMPLE 16 Summary of the Presently Preferred Manufacturing Process:Starting with 1 Gram Paclitaxel as the BDS

Prepare a 3% HSA solution. To 51.7 ml of 25% Albutein add 379.3 ml waterfor injection. Mix thoroughly and filter the solution through a sterile0.22 μm Nalgene disposable filterware. Keep at 4° C. until used.

Weigh out 1.0 g of paclitaxel in a glass bottle. Combine CHCl₃ and ethylalcohol in appropriate proportions in a vial. Mix well. To thepaclitaxel, add 13.33 ml of the chloroform/ethyl alcohol mixture.Agitate to ensure all paclitaxel dissolves into solution. Filter thesolution through a 0.22 micron sterile Teflon filter and collect in asterile glass bottle.

To the dissolved paclitaxel solution in the glass bottle, add the HSAsolution. Use the Sentry Microprocessor mixer to mix the paclitaxel/HSAsolution. When the solution is mixed, pour the contents into the chamberof the Homogenizer. Cycle the mixture through the homogenizer at apressure until the desired particle size is obtained. Collect thehomogenized sample in a sterile Kontes round bottom flask.

Attach the flask with the final sample to the Rotary evaporator. Turn onthe vacuum and the rotation to maximum in the rotavapor and evaporatethe organic solvent. This results in the colloidal solution ofpaclitaxel in human albumin. Save ˜3 ml of this rotavaped sample foranalysis of particle size.

Under a sterile hood, filter the colloidal solution using sterile0.45/0.2 μm filter and collect in a sterile receiving vessel. Save 3 mlof filtered sample for analysis by HPLC for paclitaxel concentration.

Determine the fill volume to obtain 30 mg (or other derived amount) ofpaclitaxel per vial. Fill the sterile filtered sample into autoclavedWheaton 30 ml vials at approximately 17 ml each (based on assay). Closethe vials with autoclaved Wheaton serum vial stoppers. Each vial shouldcontain approximately 30 mg of paclitaxel.

Lyophilize the samples in the FTS System Stoppering tray lyophilizerusing a predetermined lyophilization cycle. After the samples have beenlyophilized, stopper the vials and seal the vials by crimping them withthe 20 mm Wheaton aluminum tear-off caps. Label the samplesappropriately. The entire process is carried out in a clean roomenvironment under aseptic conditions.

The lyophilized samples contain residual solvent at levels <1000 ppm,and more preferably <500 ppm, or even <100 ppm.

Final Product Sterile filtration: Following removal of solvent byevaporation, the colloidal solution of paclitaxel in the flask issterile filtered through a combination 0.45/0.2 micron sterilizingfilter. The filtered solution is collected in a sterile beaker andsterile filled into 30 ml vials. Vials are then placed in thelyophilizer. Following completion of the lyophilization cycle the vialsare blanketed with dry sterile nitrogen gas and stoppered under thenitrogen blanket.

It is of note that high pressure homogenization processes are utilizedto rupture and kill bacterial and other cells to extract their contents.

EXAMPLE 17 Preparation of Protein Shell Containing Oil

Three ml of a USP (United States Pharmacopia) 5% human serum albuminsolution (Alpha Therapeutic Corporation) were taken in a cylindricalvessel that could be attached to a sonicating probe (Heat Systems, ModelXL2020). The albumin solution was overlayered with 6.5 ml of USP gradesoybean oil (soya oil). The tip of the sonicator probe was brought tothe interface between the two solutions and the assembly was maintainedin a cooling bath at 20° C. The system was allowed to equilibriate andthe sonicator turned on for 30 seconds. Vigorous mixing occurred and awhite milky suspension was obtained. The suspension was diluted 1:5 withnormal saline. A particle counter (Particle Data Systems, Elzone, Model280 PC) was utilized to determine size distribution and concentration ofoil-containing protein shells. The resulting protein shells weredetermined to have a maximum cross-sectional dimension of about1.35±0.73 microns, and the total concentration determined to be ˜10⁹shells/ml in the original suspension.

As a control, the above components, absent the protein, did not form astable miocroemulsion when subjected to ultrasonic irradiation. Thisresult suggests that the protein is essential for formation ofmicrospheres. This is confirmed by scanning electron micrograph andtransmission electron micrograph studies as described below.

EXAMPLE 18 Preparation of Polymeric Shells Containing DissolvedPaclitaxel

Taxol was dissolved in USP grade soybean oil at a concentration of 2mg/ml. 3 ml of a USP 5% human serum albumin solution was taken in acylindrical vessel that could be attached to a sonicating probe. Thealbumin solution was overlayered with 6.5 ml of soybean oil/Taxolsolution. The tip of the sonicator probe was brought to the interfacebetween the two solutions and the assembly was maintained in equilibriumand the sonicator turned on for 30 seconds. Vigorous mixing occurred anda stable white milky suspension was obtained that containedprotein-walled polymeric shells enclosing the oil/Taxol solution.

In order to obtain a higher loading of drug into the crosslinked proteinshell, a mutual solvent for the oil and the drug (in which the drug hasa considerably higher solubility) can be mixed with the oil. Providedthis solvent is relatively non-toxic (e.g., ethyl acetate), it may beinjected along with the original carrier. In other cases, it may beremoved by evaporation of the liquid under vacuum following preparationof the polymeric shells.

It is recognized that several different methods may be employed toachieve the physical characteristics of the invention formulation. Thebiological properties associated with this formulation of higher localconcentrations at specific organ sites (prostate, lung, pancreas, bone,kidney, heart) as well as lower toxicities (increased LD₅₀, decreasedmyelosuppression, decreased cerebral toxicity) associated with higherefficacies is independent of the method of manufacture.

EXAMPLE 19 Preparation of Nanoparticles by Sonication

20 mg paclitaxel is dissolved in 1.0 ml methylene chloride. The solutionis added to 4.0 ml of human serum abumin solution (5% w/v). The mixtureis homogenized for 5 minutes at low RPM (Vitris homogenizer, model:Tempest I.Q.) in order to form a crude emulsion, and then transferredinto a 40 kHz sonicator cell. The sonicator is performed at 60-90% powerat 0 degree for 1 min (550 Sonic Dismembrator). The mixture istransferred into a Rotary evaporator, and methylene chloride is rapidlyremoved at 40° C., at reduced pressure (30 mm Hg), for 20-30 minutes.The typical diameter of the resulting paclitaxel particles was 350-420nm (Z-average, Malvern Zetasizer).

The dispersion was further lyophilized for 48 hrs without adding anycryoprotectant. The resulting cake could be easily reconstituted to theoriginal dispersion by addition of sterile water or saline. The particlesize after reconstitution was the same as before lyophilization.

EXAMPLE 20 In Vivo Biodistribution of Crosslinked Protein ShellsContaining a Fluorophore

To determine the uptake and biodistribution of liquid entrapped withinprotein polymeric shells after intravenous injection, a fluorescent dye(rubrene, available from Aldrich) was entrapped within a human serumalbumin (HSA) protein polymeric shell and used as a marker. Thus,rubrene was dissolved in toluene, and albumin shells containingtoluene/rubrene were prepared as described above by ultrasonicirradiation. The resulting milky suspension was diluted five times innormal saline. Two ml of the diluted suspension was then injected intothe tail vein of a rat over 10 minutes. One animal was sacrificed anhour after injection and another 24 hours after injection.

100 micron frozen sections of lung, liver, kidney, spleen, and bonemarrow were examined under a fluorescent microscope for the presence ofpolymeric shell-entrapped fluorescent dye or released dye. At one hour,the majority of the polymeric shells appeared to be intact (i.e.,appearing as brightly fluorescing particles of about 1 micron diameter),and located in the lungs and liver. At 24 hours, the dye was observed inthe liver, lungs, spleen, and bone marrow. A general staining of thetissue was also observed, indicating that the shell wall of thepolymeric shells had been digested, and the dye liberated from within.This result was consistent with expectations and demonstrates thepotential use of invention compositions for delayed or controlledrelease of an entrapped pharmaceutical agent such as Taxol.

EXAMPLE 21 Toxicity of Polymeric Shells Containing Soybean Oil (SBO)

Polymeric shells containing soybean oil were prepared as described inExample 15. The resulting suspension was diluted in normal saline toproduce two different solutions, one containing 20% SBO and the othercontaining 30% SBO.

Intralipid, a commercially available TPN agent, contains 20% SBO. TheLD₅₀ for Intralipid in mice is 120 ml/kg, or about 4 ml for a 30 gmouse, when injected at 1 cc/min.

Two groups of mice (three mice in each group; each mouse weighing about30 g) were treated with invention composition containing SBO as follows.Each mouse was injected with 4 ml of the prepared suspension ofSBO-containing polymeric shells. Each member of one group received thesuspension containing 20% SBO, while each member of the other groupreceived the suspension containing 30% SBO.

All three mice in the group receiving the suspension containing 20% SBOsurvived such treatment, and showed no gross toxicity in any tissues ororgans when observed one week after SBO treatment. Only one of the threemice in the group receiving suspension containing 30% SBO died afterinjection. These results clearly demonstrate that oil contained withinpolymeric shells according to the present invention is not toxic at itsLD₅₀ dose, as compared to a commercially available SBO formulation(Intralipid). This effect can be attributed to the slow release (i.e.,controlled rate of becoming bioavailable) of the oil from within thepolymeric shell. Such slow release prevents the attainment of a lethaldose of oil, in contrast to the high oil dosages attained withcommercially available emulsions.

EXAMPLE 22 In Vivo Bioavailability of Soybean Oil Released fromPolymeric Shells

A test was performed to determine the slow or sustained release ofpolymeric shell-enclosed material following the injection of asuspension of polymeric shells into the blood stream of rats.Crosslinked protein (albumin) walled polymeric shells containing soybeanoil (SBO) were prepared by sonication as described above. The resultingsuspension of oil-containing polymeric shells was diluted in saline to afinal suspension containing 20% oil. Five ml of this suspension wasinjected into the cannulated external jugular vein of rats over a 10minute period. Blood was collected from these rats at several timepoints following the injection and the level of triglycerides (soybeanoil is predominantly triglyceride) in the blood determined by routineanalysis.

Five ml of a commercially available fat emulsion (Intralipid, an aqueousparenteral nutrition agent—containing 20% soybean oil, 1.2% egg yolkphospholipids, and 2.25% glycerin) was used as a control. The controlutilizes egg phosphatide as an emulsifier to stabilize the emulsion. Acomparison of serum levels of the triglycerides in the two cases wouldgive a direct comparison of the bioavailability of the oil as a functionof time. In addition to the suspension of polymeric shells containing20% oil, 5 ml of a sample of oil-containing polymeric shells in salineat a final concentration of 30% oil was also injected. Two rats wereused in each of the three groups. The blood levels of triglycerides ineach case are tabulated in Table 1, given in units of mg/dl. TABLE 1SERUM TRIGLYCERIDES (mg/dl) GROUP Pre 1 hr 4 hr 24 hr 48 hr 72 hrIntralipid Control 11.4 941.9 382.9 15.0 8.8 23.8 (20% SBO) PolymericShells 24.8 46.7 43.8 29.3 24.2 43.4 (20% SBO) Polymeric Shells 33.456.1 134.5 83.2 34.3 33.9 (30% SBO)

Blood levels before injection are shown in the column marked ‘Pre’.Clearly, for the Intralipid control, very high triglyceride levels areseen following injection. Triglyceride levels are then seen to takeabout 24 hours to come down to preinjection levels. Thus the oil is seento be immediately available for metabolism following injection.

The suspension of oil-containing polymeric shells containing the sameamount of total oil as Intralipid (20%) show a dramatically differentavailability of detectible triglyceride in the serum. The level rises toabout twice its normal value and is maintained at this level for manyhours, indicating a slow or sustained release of triglyceride into theblood at levels fairly close to normal. The group receivingoil-containing polymeric shells having 30% oil shows a higher level oftriglycerides (concomitant with the higher administered dose) that fallsto normal within 48 hours. Once again, the blood levels of triglyceridedo not rise astronomically in this group, compared to the control groupreceiving Intralipid. This again, indicates the slow and sustainedavailability of the oil from invention composition, which has theadvantages of avoiding dangerously high blood levels of materialcontained within the polymeric shells and availability over an extendedperiod at acceptable levels. Clearly, drugs delivered within polymericshells of the present invention would achieve these same advantages.

Such a system of soybean oil-containing polymeric shells could besuspended in an aqueous solution of amino acids, essential electrolytes,vitamins, and sugars to form a total parenteral nutrition (TPN) agent.Such a TPN cannot be formulated from currently available fat emulsions(e.g., Intralipid) due to the instability of the emulsion in thepresence of electrolytes.

EXAMPLE 23 Preparation of Protein-Walled Polymeric Shells Containing aSolid Core of Pharmaceutically Active Agent

Another method of delivering a poorly water-soluble drug such as Taxolwithin a polymeric shell is to prepare a shell of polymeric materialaround a solid drug core. Such a ‘protein coated’ drug particle may beobtained as follows. The procedure described in Example 16 is repeatedusing an organic solvent to dissolve Taxol at a relatively highconcentration. Solvents generally used are organics such as benzene,toluene, hexane, ethyl ether, chloroform, alcohol and the like.Polymeric shells are produced as described in Example 15. Five ml of themilky suspension of polymeric shells containing dissolved Taxol arediluted to 10 ml in normal saline. This suspension is placed in a rotaryevaporator and the volatile organic removed by vacuum. The resultantsuspension is examined under a microscope to reveal opaque cores,indicating removal of substantially all organic solvent, and thepresence of solid Taxol. The suspension can be frozen and storedindefinitely and used directly or lyophilized at a later time.

Alternatively, the polymeric shells with cores of organicsolvent-containing dissolved drug are freeze-dried to obtain a drycrumbly powder that can be resuspended in saline (or other suitableliquid) at the time of use. Although the presently preferred protein foruse in the formation of the polymeric shell is albumin, other proteinssuch as α-2-macroglobulin, a known opsonin, could be used to enhanceuptake of the polymeric shells by macrophage-like cells. Alternatively,molecules like PEG could be incorporated into the particles to produce apolymeric shell with increased circulation time in vivo.

C. Formation of Nanoparticles by Spontaneous Microemulsion

It is also possible to form nanoparticles without the use of sonication,high shear homegenization, or any other high-energy technique. Thus, itis possible to form a suspension (or dry powder) of essentially puredrug, if desired.

A microemulsion is a thermodynamically stable emulsion system that isformed spontaneously when all it's components are brought into contact,in the absence of the use of high shear equipment or other substantialagitation.

Microemulsions are substantially non-opaque, i.e., they are transparentor translucent. Microemulsions comprise a dispersed phase, in which thetypical droplet size is below 1000 Angstrom (Å), hence their opticaltransparency. The droplets in the microemulsion are typically spherical,though other structures such as elongated cylinders are feasible. (Forfurther discussion see, e.g., Rosof, Progress in Surface and MembraneScience, 12, 405, Academic Press (1975), Friberg S., Dispersion Scienceand Technology, 6, 317 (1985).)

As will be shown below, the present invention utilizes the uniquecharacteristics of the microemulsion as a first step towards obtainingextremely small nanoparticles, after removal of the oil phase.

As described earlier, microparticles and nanoparticles can be formed byvarious processes, among them, the solvent evaporation method. Thismethod is based, in principle, on formation of a simple oil in wateremulsion, in the presence of surface active agent, while applying highshear forces by means of various equipment such as rotor-stator mixers,sonicators, high pressure homogenizers, colloid mills, etc. Afterforming such an emulsion, which contains a polymer and a drug dissolvedin the dispersed oil droplets, the oil phase is removed by evaporation,typically at reduced pressure and elevated temperature, andmicoparticles or nanoparticles of the dissolved drug and polymer areformed. Obviously, the size of the particles is dependent on emulsiondroplet's size; the smaller the droplets, the smaller the resultingparticles. Small emulsion droplets can be achieved only by applying veryhigh energy, and even then, by using the most advanced high pressurehomogenizers such as the Microfluidizer, it is not practical to achieveemulsion droplets below 75 nm. Since emulsions are inherently unstablesystems, and undergo processes such as aggregation and dropletscoalescence, the solvent evaporation processes for such emulsions mayresult in larger particles.

The new method, which overcomes the problems associated with applicationof the solvent evaporation method in conventional emulsions, consists ofthe following steps:

a. Dissolving the water insoluble drug in a solvent which has lowsolubility in water, and has higher vapor pressure than water. The drugis dissolved without any additional polymeric binder, although suchbinder can be present, in principle.

b. Mixing the solvent with a proper surfactant(s) and a water solublecosurfactant(s).

c. Adding a suitable amount of water or aqueous solution to thismixture, thus spontaneously forming an oil-in-water microemulsion,without the use of any high shear equipment. The aqueous solution maycontain electrolytes, amino acids, or any other additive which mayaffect the formation of the microemulsion during the first preparationstage.

d. Optionally adding a protein solution to the microemulsion.

e. Removing the solvent by evaporation at reduced pressure, thus causingprecipitation of the drug in the form of extremely small amorphousnanoparticles, having a typical size below 1000 Angstroms. The particlesat this stage are dispersed and stabilized in an aqueous medium whichcontains surfactant, cosurfactant, and optionally protective agents suchas proteins, sugars, etc. Acceptable methods of evaporation include theuse of rotary evaporators, falling film evaporators, spray dryers,freeze dryers, and other standard evaporation equipment typically usedin industry.

f. Optionally one may remove the surfactant and cosurfactant bydialysis, ultrafiltration, adsorption, etc., thus obtainingnanoparticles which are stabilized by the protein.

g. Following evaporation of solvent, the liquid dispersion ofnanoparticles may be dried to obtain a powder containing thepharmacological agent and optionally the protein, which can beredispersed into a suitable aqueous medium such as saline, buffer,water, and the like, to obtain a suspension that can be administered toa life-form, having a particle size below 1000 Angstroms. Acceptablemethods of obtaining this powder are by freeze-drying, spray drying, andthe like. If the conversion into a solid form is performed bylyophilization, various cryoprotectants may be added, such as manitol,lactose, albumin, carboxymethyl cellulose, polyvinylpyrolidone,maltodextrins, and/or polyethylene glycol.

These nanoparticles can be further mixed with additional excipients ormatrix-forming materials, in order to obtain a drug delivery system,with high bioavailabilty, controlled release characteristics, andprotection in gastric juice. The final product may be introduced to themammals as a tablet, capsule, reconstituted liquid, or the like.

The present invention formulation has significant advantages over thepreviously used methods for preparation of nanoparticles andmicroparticles, and the use of microemulsions or “pre-microemulsionconcentrate.”

There are many advantages realized by using the invention process. Themicroemulsion is formed spontaneously, if the proper components areselected, and there is no need for high cost equipment and energy input.The droplet size is smaller about an order of magnitude than thesmallest emulsion droplets obtained by high shear equipment, andtherefore extremely small nanoparticles can be obtained. Themicroemulsion is thermodynamically stable, and therefore the usualproblems which are associated with emulsion instability (and thus a timedependence of the size of the resulting particles) will be prevented.The whole process is much more simple than the conventionalemulsion-solvent evaporation method, and less sensitive to variousparameters. Since only simple mixing is involved in the process, theupscaling to large production volumes is very simple, compared toemulsification with equipment such as high shear homogenizer. Since theparticle size obtained by the new process is so small, an order ofmagnitude less than the pore size of membranes used for sterilefiltration, the sterilization process is very effective, withoutproblems associated with membrane blockage, such as increased filtrationpressure, and high drug loss during the filtration process. Since thereare no high shear forces in the emulsification process, there is noincrease in temperature during emulsification, and therefore eventemperature-sensitive drugs can be processed by the new inventionmethod. The drug in the liquid formulation of the present invention hasincreased chemical stability because it contains dispersed nanoparticlescompared to conventional microemulsions that contain dispersednanodroplets, i.e., more chemical reactions take place in liquid state(microdroplet) versus solid state (nanoparticle). The present inventionhas increased chemical stability as a dry formulation compared toconventional microemulsions that are liquids as the continuousmicroemulsion phase. The solid formulation enables inclusion of the drugin various solid dosage forms, such as tablets, granules and capsules,compared to conventional microemulsions or “pre-microemulsionconcentrates,” which are present in a liquid form. The very narrow sizedistribution, combined with very low average particle size, ensuresincreased adsorption of the drug, in a manner more uniform thanmicroparticles and nanoparticles prepared by conventional methods, thus,increased bioavailability is expected.

Although the examples presented in the following section refer to twowater insoluble molecules, the pharmacological agents contemplated to beuseful in the preparation of nanoparticles include but are not limitedto drugs, diagnostic agents, agents of therapeutic value, nutritionalagents, and the like. A non-limiting list of drug categories andcompounds include but are not limited to all of the compounds listedabove for use in the high shear homogenization aspect of the invention.

The solvents described in the following examples are toluene and butylacetate, however, any solvent or solvent mixture which is capable ofdissolving the required drug will be suitable for use in the inventionprocess, provided that a proper microemulsion can be formed prior toremoval of the solvent. Such solvents can be chloroform, methylenechloride, ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, isobutylacetate, propyl acetate,tert-butylmethyl ether, butanol, propylen glycol, heptane, anisol,cumene, ethyl formate ethanol, propanol, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane,acetonitrile, acetone, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethyl formamide,methylpyrrolidinone, soybean oil, coconut oil, castor oil, olive oil,safflower oil, cottonseed oil, alcohols C1-C20, esters C2-C20, ketonesC3-C20, polyethylene glycols, aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatichydrocarbons, halogenated hydrocarbons, d-limonene, combinationsthereof, and the like.

The protein (or a mixture of several proteins) used in this processshould be such that does not precipitate during the initial mixing orduring the evaporation stage. There are many such proteins, includingalbumins (e.g., BSA HSA, egg), gelatin, collagen, IgG, various enzymes,lactoglobulin, casein, soy proteins, and the like.

The surfactants utilized in this invention should be capable ofspontaneously forming oil-in-water microemulsions, in the presence of asuitable cosurfactant and solvent, without causing precipitation of thedrug or the protein (if present). The surfactants can be nonionic(Tween, Span, Triton, Pluronic, polyglycerol esters, and the like),anionic (SDS, cholates and deoxycholates, fatty acid soaps, and thelike), cationic (cetyltrimethyl ammonium chloride, and the like) orzwitterionic (lecithin, amino acids, and the like).

The cosurfactant should have the ability to spontaneously formmicroemulsions with the selected surfactants, without causingprecipitation of the dissolved drug molecules (or protein, if present),and without inducing formation of large crystalline material. Thecosurfactants can be either water soluble or oil soluble, such asbutanol, propylene glycol, benzyl alcohol, propanol, and the like.

The conversion of the liquid dispersion of the nanoparticles vialyophilization may require the addition of cryoprotecting agents, suchas mannitol, lactose, amino acids, proteins, polysaccharides, and thelike.

It is clear that the principles described in this invention can beapplied in several variations of the process, for example:

1. The formation of the drug particles may be induced by dilution of themicroemulsion in a proper solvent, in which the solvent is miscible. Forexample, if the solvent has a low solubility in water, it would bepossible to dilute the microemulsion to such an extent that the solventwill be below it's solubility limit in water.

2. The solvent and optionally the surfactant and cosurfactant can beremoved by using a selective extractant which does not dissolve thedrug.

3. The surfactant and cosurfactant may be removed by ultrafiltration,while using filters having a cut-off below that of the MW of theprotein. Simple dialysis is also an option.

4. The formulation may contain only components which are acceptable forthe intended use of the final formulation (whether oral, IV, topical,etc.), thus there is no need for their removal.

5. Similarly, cosurfactants that can remain in the final product, suchas glycerol, benzyl alcohol, etc, may be used.

6. The addition of various water soluble molecules which may affect thephase diagram of the microemulsion (electrolytes, ethanol etc.) ispossible, thus controlling the ratio between the various components togive the optimal drug load.

7. The spontaneous emulsification step may be performed at a temperatureother than room temperature, in order to affect the phase diagram (andthe component proportions that leads to formation of a microemulsion).In particular, it could be possible to use the temperature effect (inethoxylated surfactants) to change the system from an oil-in-water to awater-in-oil microemulsion.

8. It is possible to add other components to the solvent phase, in orderto affect the bioavailability of the drug. In particular, addition of anoil such as Soybean oil, to enhance oral absorption, and to protect thedrug from chemical and enzymatic degradation is preferred.

9. Similarly, the addition of a matrix-forming polymer (such as PVP) tothe solvent, together with the drug may be done.

10. The stabilization and solid-form properties may be altered by theaddition of a water soluble polymer other than the protein (CMC, gums,and the like) to the external aqueous phase of the microemulsion.

11. The flow properties of the resulting solid form powder may bealtered by addition of colloidal particles (e.g. silica) as a filler, oraddition of reconstitution/anti-agglomeration aids.

12. The same principles described in this invention may be applied toform water soluble particles, while performing the emulsification stagein the composition range in which a water-in-oil microemulsion isformed. The process can be used, for example to form extremely smallprotein nanoparticles.

EXAMPLE 22 Preparation of Nanoparticles of Cyclosporin A

115 mg Cyclosporin A are dissolved in 1 mL butyl acetate, and mixed with2 grams of a 4:1 solution of Triton X-100:n-Butanol. A clear system isobtained. 10 g water is added dropwise, while slightly shaking. A clearoil-in-water microemulsion is obtained. 10 g of 1% casein solution isadded, while slightly shaking. The system becomes slightly turbid. Thebutyl acetate is removed in a rotovap, at 40° C., 80 mm Hg. The systembecomes completely clear.

The particle size was measured by photon correlation spectroscopy. Itwas found that the Z-average size is 25-33 nm, while the size by numberor volume distribution is only 9 nm. No particles were observed underoptical microscope, nor under polarized light. This result indicates theabsence of crystalline particles.

The liquid dispersion of these nanoparticles was lyophilized, afteradding lactose (2% w/w).

A white, solid material was obtained, which, upon reconstitution inwater, yielded a clear system, similar to that prior to lyophilization.The particle size in this reconstituted sample was very similar to thatof the original formulation, Z-average about 40 nm, and diameter byvolume and number distribution between 10-12 nm.

EXAMPLE 25 Preparation of Nanoparticles of Cyclosporin A

119 mg of Cyclosporin A are dissolved in butyl acetate, and mixed with 2grams of a 4:1 solution of Triton X-100:propylene glycol. A clear systemis obtained. 7 g water is added dropwise, while slightly shaking. Aclear oil-in-water microemulsion is obtained. 7 g of 1% casein solutionis added, while slightly shaking. The system becomes slightly turbid.The sample is diluted 1:1 with water, prior to solvent evaporation. Thebutyl acetate is removed in a rotovap, at 40° C., 80 mm Hg. The systembecomes completely clear. This process also yielded extremely smallnanoparticles: Z-average 45 nm, and diameter by volume and numberdistribution is 11 nm.

The liquid dispersion of these nanoparticles was lyophilized, afteradding lactose (2% w/w).

A white, solid material was obtained, which, upon reconstitution inwater, yielded a clear system, similar to that prior to lyophilization.The particle size in this reconstituted sample was close to that of theoriginal formulation, Z-average about 25 nm, and diameter by volume andnumber distributions between 9-11 nm.

EXAMPLE 26 Cyclosporine Nanoparticles

Microemulsions were made with the following compositions: 50 mgCyclosporine, 0.5 g butylacetate, 3.04 g Tween 80:propyleneglycol (1:1),and 6.8 g water. The microemulsion was evaporated to give a clear liquidcontaining 5 mg/ml of cyclosporine. In a control experiment, performedwith the above components by simple mixing, but without butylacetate,even after 17 hours, cyclosporin was not dissolved.

There are several possibilities for surfactants, including polysorbates(Tween), sorbitan esters (span), sucrose esters, lecithin,monodiglycerides, polyethylene-polypropylene block copolymers(pluromics), soaps (sodium stearate, etc.), sodium glycolate bile salts,ethoxylated castor oil, sodium stearoyl-lactylate, ethoxylated fattyacids (myrj), ethoxylated fatty alcohols (Brij), sodium dodecyl sulphate(SDS), and the like. Also, in general, biopolymers such as starch,gelatin, cellulose derivatives etc. may be used. Also for oralapplications, all acceptable food grade surfactants may be used as wellas surfactants presented in McCutcheon Handbook of Surfactants or CTFAIndex. Possible cosolvents or cosurfactants for the microemulsioninclude propylene glycol, ethanol, glycerol, butanol, oleic acid, andthe like.

EXAMPLE 27 Preparation of Nanoparticles of BHT

110 mg butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) is dissolved in 1 ml toluene, andmixed with 2 ml 4:1 solution of Triton X-100:n-Butanol. 32 g of 1%casein solution was added, and a microemulsion was spontaneously formed.The microemulsion was evaporated under reduced pressure, 80 mm Hg, at40° C., until it became clear. The size of the resulting particles is:Z-average 30 nm, diameter by volume and number distribution is 16 and 15nm, respectively.

EXAMPLE 28 Preparation of Nanoparticles of BHT

A process similar to that described in example 24 was performed, whileusing water instead of casein solution. After evaporation at 40° C., 80mm Hg, the system became clear, having a Z-average size of ˜10 nm.

EXAMPLE 29 Preparation of Nanoparticles of Paclitaxel

30 mg of paclitaxel were dissolved in 2 ml butyl acetate, and added to 4grams of 4:1 Triton x-100:propylene glycol. 40 ml water were added, andthe system was slightly turbid. After evaporation, the system becamecompletely clear. Z-average size was 6 nm, size by volume and numbereddistribution was 7-9 nm. The same size was measured after one day at 4°C.

D. Miscellaneous Examples Relevant to all Methods of NanoparticleFormation

EXAMPLE 30 Identification of Microemulsion Phase Diagrams

Compositions were identified which yield microemulsions, and that may beutilized to obtain nanoparticles by the solvent evaporation method.These compositions should contain a water miscible solvent capable ofdissolving hydrophobic molecules, an aqueous solution as the continuousmedium, surfactants, and possibly cosurfactants.

Microemulsions of butyl acetate in water can be formed at variouscompositions which are described by phase diagrams (butyl acetate isclassified as solvent with high acceptable residual concentration in thefinal product). Furthermore, both surfactant and cosurfactant are usedin food and pharmaceutical applications: Tween 80 (ethoxylated sorbitanmonooleate) and propylene glycol. Preliminary experiments were conductedby using BHT as a model hydrophobic molecule, yielding dispersions ofparticles in the size range of 20-50 nm. After filtration by 0.2 μmfilters, about 100% of the BHT passed the membrane.

Phase diagrams of various combinations of surfactant/cosurfactant wereobtained by vortexing the solvent with a mixture ofsurfactant/cosurfactant (prepared prior to the mixing with the solvent,at various ratios), followed by dropwise addition of water. Theturbidity of the various compositions along the “water line” wasobserved and the compositions which yielded translucent systems werefurther analyzed by light scattering. By using various ratios ofsolvent-surfactant/cosurfactant, the areas in the phase diagrams whichyielded microemulsions were identified (only a small number of theselected components yielded microemulsions). The same procedure was usedfor systems in which BHT was dissolved in butyl acetate prior toconducting the phase diagram experiments.

The “filterability” of the microemulsion and nanoparticles which containthe BHT, was evaluated by comparing the UV absorption spectra before andafter 0.2 μm filtration. The nanoparticles were obtained by vacuumevaporation of butyl acetate (60 mm Hg, 40 C). It should be emphasizedthat throughout the whole process no high shear equipment was used.

The microemulsion systems were identified which could be useful for oraldelivery. n-Butyl acetate was chosen as a solvent. The followingsurfactants and cosurfactants were evaluated at various ratios: Tween80:Glycerol 5:1 Tween 80:Glycerol 4:1 Tween 80:Glycerol 3:1 Tween80:Glycerol 2:1 Tween 80:Glycerol 1:1 Span 80:Glycerol 4:1 Span80:Glycerol 3:1 Tween 80:Propylene glycol 4:1 Tween 80:Propylene glycol3:1 Tween 80:Propylene glycol 2.5:1   Tween 80:Propylene glycol 1.5:1  Tween 80:Propylene glycol 1:1 Tween 80:Propylene glycol 1:2 ((Tween 80 +Span 80) 7:1):Propylene glycol 3.5:1   ((Tween 80 + Span 80)7:1):Propylene glycol 1:1 ((Tween 80 + Span 80) 8:1):Propylene glycol4:1 ((Tween 80 + Span 80) 5:1):Propylene glycol 1:1 Tween 80:((Propyleneglycol + Glycerol) 1:1.2) 2:1

A suitable composition was found to be as follows: Tween 80 as asurfactant and propylene glycol as a cosurfacant at ratio 1:1. The fullphase diagram was evaluated for the system n-butyl acetate, Tween80:propylene glycol 1:1, water. Two additional solvents were tested:sec-butyl acetate and tert-butyl acetate. The phase diagrams for thesesystems were the same as for that with n-butyl acetate. The systemn-butyl acetate, Tween 80:propylene glycol 1:1, water was evaluatedfurther.

The measurement of particle size for the sample 7% butyl acetate, 30%surfactant/PG, 63% water was performed. Z average of about 20 nm wasfound. The nanoparticles formation process was conducted for a waterinsoluble dye, Sudan III, at concentration of about 10 mg in 1 g butylacetate (5% butyl acetate, 23% surfactant/PG, 72% water). Particle sizeof about 17 nm was found. The nanoparticles formation process was alsoconducted for BHT at concentration 100 mg in 1 g butyl acetate. Thephase diagram for this system was determined. Particle size of about20-50 nm was found depending on the composition.

Control experiments with Sudan III and BHT were conducted. 14.4 g ofwater was added to 10 mg Sudan III and 4.6 g of surfactant/PG was addedto the mixture. The sample was stirred for 24 hr with magnetic stirrer.Dissolution of Sudan III was observed. However, when the same experimentwas performed with BHT (100 mg BHT in 9 g water and 4.3 g ofsurfactant/PG) no dissolution of BHT was observed. At this stageevaporation was performed (temperature 40° C., pressure about 60 mm Hg).The measurement of particle size for the samples was performed beforeand after evaporation. Z average of about 20-50 nm, and 30 nm was foundfor the samples before evaporation and after evaporation, respectively.

The samples after evaporation were filtered through 0.2 μm filters, andthe concentration of the BHT before and after filtration was measured byUV absorption. It was found that there is no difference between the twosamples. This result is obviously an indication of the very small sizeof the BHT nanoparticles.

Two samples were prepared (the composition of these samples: sample no.1: 4% butyl acetate; 14% surfactant/PG; 80% water; sample no 2: BHT 123mg/g butyl acetate; 5% butyl acetate; 18% surfactant/PG; 77% water).

EXAMPLE 31 Alternatives in Choice of Process Equipment

Process equipment used to produce the current batches will be scaled-upfor clinical manufacture. There are several alternatives available inthe choice of larger scale equipment for Capxol™ production. Some ofthese alternatives are listed below: Equipment Category EquipmentOptions Premixer Blade Mixer, Rotostator Mixer High Pressure EquipmentHigh Pressure Homogenizers (Avestin, Microfluidics, Stansted),Sonicators (Heat Systems) Solvent Removal Equipment Rotary Evaporators,Continuous Flow Evaporators, Wiped Film Evaporators, Flash Evaporators,Recirculting Concentrators, Ultrafiltration Dehydration EquipmentLyophilizers, Spray Dryers

EXAMPLE 32 Intravenous Delivery Systems Formulated from a Variety ofMaterials

The materials used for the preparation of intravenous delivery systemsmay be polymeric (e.g., polyethylene, polyvinyl, polypropylene tubing,and the like), or glass. Standard medical grade tubing is known tocontain hydrophobic moieties on the inner surfaces thereof. Thesemoieties are thus available to come in contact with the injectionsolution. Indeed, such tubing is specifically tailored, as are thecatheters, to present hydrophobic moieties in contact with the treatmentsolution so as to reduce the absorption of aqueous material to thetubing. However, any hydrophobic moieties in the treatment solution willlikely bind to both the catheter tubing and other components of thedelivery system. As a result, a substantial portion of a hydrophobicpharmacologically active agent can become sequestered in the inner wallsof the tubing catheter and delivery vessel. Consequently, the dosing ofhydrophobic pharmacologically active agents can be erratic, since asubstantial portion of the active agent can become absorbed to the wallsof the tubing. In critical therapeutic treatments, where the hydrophobicpharmacologically active agent is used to treat a disease, a significantreduction in the effective dose of active agent can lead to atherapeutic failure. The failure is particularly striking when employingtherapeutic moieties which require that the active agent be presentabove a certain level, yet the therapeutic window is narrow.

A novel method for the intravenous introduction of a hydrophobicpharmacologically active agent has now been developed. By protecting thehydrophobic moieties of the active agent, through association with thehydrophobic moieties of a biocompatible coating (e.g., albumin), thepropensity of the active agent to become attached to the tubing isdramatically reduced. Thus, the present invention enables the use ofhighly hydrophobic drugs, in combination with standard medical gradepolymers and hydrophobic glasses, in which the drug is protected andtherefore not absorbed onto the surface. The invention method comprisesplacing a protective coating of a biocompatible polymer (e.g., albumin)around the hydrophobic drug and placing the resulting composition in ahydrophobic polymeric delivery system. The invention methods aretherefore capable of improving the delivery of a variety of hydrophobictherapeutics.

EXAMPLE 33 HPLC Analysis of Paclitaxel

Chromatographic System:

HPLC: Shimadzu LC-10AS Solvent Delivery System

Shimadzu SIL-10A Auto Injector

Shimadzu SCL-10A System Controler

Shimadzu SPD-M10AV Diodearray Detector

Shimadzu CTO-10A Column Oven

Column: Curosil-PFP, 5 μm, 4.6 mm×25 cm, Phenomenex; or C-18

Mobile Phase: water/acetonitrile 65:45

Flow Rate: isocratic, 1.0 ml/min

Detection: 228 nm

Identity of Paclitaxel Bulk Drug Substance (BDS)

The paclitaxel BDS and the paclitaxel standard (99.9%, Hauser ChemicalResearch, INC., Lot 1782-105-5) were quantitatively dissolved inacetonitrile and injected into the HPLC separately. 10 μl of 1.00 mg/mlpaclitaxel BDS and 10 μl of 2.07 mg/ml standard paclitaxel wereinjected. The retention time of the dominant peak of paclitaxel BDSmatches the retention time of the paclitaxel standard from Hauser.

Potency of Paclitaxel BDS

The paclitaxel BDS and standard paclitaxel were injected into the HPLCas described above. The potency of paclitaxel was derived based on thepeak area ratio of the paclitaxel BDS over the standard paclitaxel andthe known potency of the standard paclitaxel.

Impurity Profile of Paclitaxel BDS

The chromatographic system described above is capable of providing ahigh resolution of taxanes. 10-20 μl of 1.0 mg/ml paclitaxel BDS inacetonitrile which falls within the linear response range of our HPLCsystem was injected into the HPLC. The impurity profile was determinedby the relative peak area.

Assay of Potency of Paclitaxel in Capxol™

The standard solutions (60, 100, 120, 140 and 160 ug/mL) were preparedby quantitatively dissolving paclitaxel BDS in 3% HSA. The Capxol™samples were diluted in saline to ˜100 μg/ml in paclitaxelconcentration. The standard solutions and Capxol™ samples were spikedwith cephalomannine as an internal standard followed by Solid PhaseExtraction or Liquid Phase Extraction (see below). Separately injectequal volumes (20-30 μl) of the standard preparations and Capxol™ samplepreparations into the HPLC to measure the peak response ratio betweenpaclitaxel and the internal standard cephalomannine. A calibration curvewas generated by the ordinary least square regression on the resultsfrom the standard injections. The potency of paclitaxel in Capxol™ isdetermined by comparing the peak response ratio of the sample injectionswith the standard injections.

Impurity Profile of Paclitaxel in Capxol™

Capxol™ was subjected to the Solid Phase Extraction or Liquid PhaseExtraction (see below) before injection into the HPLC. 30 μl of ˜1 mg/mlpaclitaxel extracted from Capxol™ was injected to investigate theimpurity profile as above.

Solid Phase Extraction

A Capxol™ sample is reconstituted to approximately 100 μg/ml in saline.A solid phase extraction column, Bond-Elut (C-18) is conditioned withwater. The column is loaded with the sample which is pulled through thecolumn using a vacuum. The column is then washed with water followed byelution of paclitaxel with acetonitrile. The eluate containing extractedpaclitaxel in acetonitrile is injected on the HPLC.

Liquid Phase Extraction

A Capxol™ sample is reconstituted to approximately 100 μg/ml in saline.To approximately 200 μl of this sample is added 800 μl of acetonitrile.The mixture is vortexed for 30 seconds and then centrifuged at 3,000 gfor 5-minutes. The supernatant is removed and collected. The pellet isresuspended in 200 μl of saline and the extraction step repeated. Thesecond supernatant is pooled with the first. The pooled extract isconcentrated by evaporation followed by injection on the HPLC.

EXAMPLE 34 Particle Size Distribution by Photon Correlation Spectroscopy(PCS)

The particle size distribution of reconstituted Capxol™ was analyzed byphoton correlation spectroscopy (PCS) on the Malvern Zetasizer, MalvernInstruments Ltd. The Zetasizer was calibrated by NIST traceableNanosphere™ Size Standards, Duke Scientific Corporation. The procedurefor measuring Capxol™ particle size on the Malvern Zetasizer includedsetting the following parameters:

Temperature: 20.70° C.,

Scattering angle: 90°

Refractive Index dispersant: 1.33

Wavelength: 633 nm

Visc. (Auto): 0.99

Real refractive index: 1.59

Imaginary refractive index: 0

After preparing the Zetasizer, next determine the dilution of the sampleneeded for a good size measurement from the kcts/sec readings (to start,aliquot 200 μl of sample into a cuvette then dilute with approximately 2ml of 0.22 μm filter filtered distilled water). Place the cuvette intothe cuvette holder inside the Zetasizer and start measurement. Once themeasurement starts, the Correlator Control display will appear. From themenu, choose display rate meter. The rate should be in the medium range100-250 kcts/sec. If the rate is either too high or too low, prepareanother sample at higher or lower dilution respectively. The size ofreconstituted Capxol™ was analyzed, averaged and recorded by multimodalanalysis after three Auto runs. The mean particle size was 155 nm±23 nmfor 25 batches of Capxol™.

EXAMPLE 35 Polymeric Shells as Carriers for Polynucleotide Constructs,Enzymes and Vaccines

As gene therapy becomes more widely accepted as a viable therapeuticoption (at the present time, over 40 human gene transfer proposals havebeen approved by NIH and/or FDA review boards), one of the barriers toovercome in implementing this therapeutic approach is the reluctance touse viral vectors for the incorporation of genetic material into thegenome of a human cell. Viruses are inherently toxic. Thus, the risksentailed in the use of viral vectors in gene therapy, especially for thetreatment of non-lethal, non-genetic diseases, are unacceptable.Unfortunately, plasmids transferred without the use of a viral vectorare usually not incorporated into the genome of the target cell. Inaddition, as with conventional drugs, such plasmids have a finite halflife in the body. Thus, a general limitation to the implementation ofgene therapy (as well as antisense therapy, which is a reverse form ofgene therapy, where a nucleic acid or oligonucleotide is introduced toinhibit gene expression) has been the inability to effectively delivernucleic acids or oligonucleotides which are too large to permeate thecell membrane.

The encapsulation of DNA, RNA, plasmids, oligonucleotides, enzymes, andthe like, into protein microcapsule shells as described herein canfacilitate their targeted delivery to the liver, lung, spleen, lymph andbone marrow. Thus, in accordance with the present invention, suchbiologics can be delivered to intracellular locations without theattendant risk associated with the use of viral vectors. This type offormulation facilitates the non-specific uptake or endocytosis of thepolymeric shells directly from the blood stream to the cells of the RES,into muscle cells by intramuscular injection, or by direct injectioninto tumors. In addition, monoclonal antibodies against nuclearreceptors can be used to target the encapsulated product to the nucleusof certain cell types.

Diseases that can be targeted by such constructs include diabetes,hepatitis, hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, multiple sclerosis, cancers ingeneral, flu, AIDS, and the like. For example, the gene for insulin-likegrowth factor (IGF-1) can be encapsulated into protein shells fordelivery for the treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathy andcachexia. Genes encoding Factor IX and Factor VIII (useful for thetreatment of hemophilia) can be targeted to the liver by encapsulationinto protein microcapsule shells of the present invention. Similarly,the gene for the low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor can be targetedto the liver for treatment of atherosclerosis by encapsulation intoprotein microcapsule shells of the present invention.

Other genes useful in the practice of the present invention are geneswhich re-stimulate the body's immune response against cancer cells. Forexample, antigens such as HLA-B7, encoded by DNA contained in a plasmid,can be incorporated into a protein shell of the present invention forinjection directly into a tumor (such as a skin cancer). Once in thetumor, the antigen will recruit to the tumor specific cells whichelevate the level of cytokines (e.g., IL-2) that render the tumor atarget for immune system attack.

As another example, plasmids containing portions of the adeno-associatedvirus genome are contemplated for encapsulation into proteinmicrocapsule shells of the present invention. In addition, proteinmicrocapsule shells of the present invention can be used to delivertherapeutic genes to CD8+ T cells, for adoptive immunotherapy against avariety of tumors and infectious diseases.

Protein shells of the present invention can also be used as a deliverysystem to fight infectious diseases via the targeted delivery of anantisense nucleotide, for example, against the hepatitis B virus. Anexample of such an antisense oligonucleotide is a 21-merphosphorothioate against the polyadenylation signal of the hepatitis Bvirus.

Protein shells of the present invention can also be used for thedelivery of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) gene.Humans lacking this gene develop cystic fibrosis, which can be treatedby nebulizing protein microcapsule shells of the present inventioncontaining the CFTR gene, and inhaling directly into the lungs.

Enzymes can also be delivered using the protein shells of the presentinvention. For example, the enzyme, DNAse, can be encapsulated anddelivered to the lung. Similarly, ribozymes can be encapsulated andtargeted to virus envelop proteins or virus infected cells by attachingsuitable antibodies to the exterior of the polymeric shell. Vaccines canalso be encapsulated into polymeric microcapsules of the presentinvention and used for subcutaneous, intramuscular or intravenousdelivery.

EXAMPLE 36 Localized Treatment of Brain Tumors and Tumors within thePeritoneum

Delivering chemotherapeutic agents locally to a tumor is an effectivemethod for long term exposure to the drug while minimizing dose limitingside effects. The biocompatible materials discussed above may also beemployed in several physical forms such as gels, crosslinked oruncrosslinked to provide matrices from which the pharmacologicallyactive ingredient, for example paclitaxel, may be released by diffusionand/or degradation of the matrix. Capxol may be dispersed within amatrix of the biocompatible material to provide a sustained releaseformulation of paclitaxel for the treatment of brain tumors and tumorswithin the peritoneal cavity (ovarian cancer and metastatic diseases).Temperature sensitive materials may also be utilized as the dispersingmatrix for the invention formulation. Thus for example, the Capxol maybe injected in a liquid formulation of the temperature sensitivematerials (e.g., copolymers of polyacrylamides or copolymers ofpolyalkylene glycols and polylactide/glycolides and the like) which gelat the tumor site and provide slow release of Capxol. The Capxolformulation may be dispersed into a matrix of the above mentionedbiocompatible polymers to provide a controlled release formulation ofpaclitaxel, which through the properties of the Capxol formulation(albumin associated with paclitaxel) results in lower toxicity to braintissue as well as lower systemic toxicity as discussed below. Thiscombination of Capxol, or other chemotherapeutic agents formulatedsimilar to Capxol, together with a biocompatible polymer matrix, may beuseful for the controlled local delivery of chemotherapeutic agents fortreating solid tumors in the brain and peritoneum (ovarian cancer) andin local applications to other solid tumors. These combinationformulations are not limited to the use of paclitaxel and may beutilized with a wide variety of pharmacologically active ingredientsincluding antiinfectives, immunosuppressives and other chemotherapeuticsand the like.

EXAMPLE 37 Stability of Capxol™ Following Reconstitution

Lyophilized Capxol in glass vials was reconstituted with sterile normalsaline to concentrations of 1, 5, 10, and 15 mg/ml and stored at roomtemperature and under refrigerated conditions. The suspensions was foundto be homogeneous for at least three days under these conditions.Particle size measurements performed at several time points indicated nochange in size distribution. No precipitation was seen under theseconditions. This stability is unexpected and overcomes problemsassociated with Taxol, which precipitates in within about 24 hours afterreconstitution at the recommended concentrations of 0.6-1.2 mg/ml.

In addition, reconstituted Capxol was stable in presence of differentpolymeric tubing materials such as teflon, silastic, polyethylene,tygon, and other standard infusion tubing materials. This is a majoradvantage over Taxol which is limited to polyethylene infusion sets andglass infusion bottles.

EXAMPLE 38 Unit Dosage Forms for Capxol™

Capxol is prepared as a lyophilized powder in vials of suitable size.Thus a desired dosage can be filled in a suitable container andlyophilized to obtain a powder containing essentially albumin andpaclitaxel in the desired quantity. Such containers are thenreconstituted with sterile normal saline or other aqueous diluent to theappropriate volume at the point of use to obtain a homogeneoussuspension of paclitaxel in the diluent. This reconstituted solution canbe directly administered to a patient either by injection or infusionwith standard i.v. infusion sets.

In addition, Capxol™ may be prepared as a frozen, ready to use solutionin bottles or bags that would be thawed at the time of use and simplyadministered to the patient. This avoids the lyophilization step in themanufacturing process.

It is very surprising that when the invention formulation and Taxol areadministered to rats at equivalent doses of paclitaxel, a much higherdegree of myelosuppression results for the Taxol group compared to theinvention Formulation group. This can result in lower incidences ofinfections and fever episodes (e.g., febrile neutropenia). It can alsoreduce the cycle time in between treatments which is currently 21 days.With the use of pharmaceutical compositions prepared according to thepresent invention, this cycle time may be reduced to 2 weeks or lessallowing for more effective treatment for cancers. Thus, the use ofpharmaceutical compositions prepared according to the present inventionmay provide substantial advantage over Taxol.

EXAMPLE 39 Oral Delivery of Drugs

Taxol is very poorly absorbed by the oral route. Particulateformulations such as Capxol may greatly enhance the uptake of drugs suchas paclitaxel. In addition the invention formulations of paclitaxelprepared through the microemulsion/evaporation process are useful fororal uptake of drugs. The use of surfactants in combination with theseformulations surprisingly enhance the oral bioavailability of thesedrugs. The use of lipids, surfactants, enzyme inhibitors, permeationenhancers, ion pairing agents, metabolism inhibitors were surprisinglyfound to increase the oral absorption of the invention paclitaxelformulations. Examples of ion pairing agents include but are not limitedto trichloroacetate, trichloroacetate salicylate, naphthalene sulphonicacid, glycine, bis-N,N-dibutylaminoethylene carbonate, n-alkylsulfonates, and n-alkyl sulfates. Examples of membrane permeationenhancers include but are not limited to Sodium Caprate, acylglycerides, poloxyethylene alkyl ethers acyl carnitines, sodium cholate,sodium taurocholate, sodium taurodihydrofusidate, EDTA, sodiumsalicylate, sodium methoxysalicylate. A non-limiting list of surfactantsand lipids that can be used for the invention formulations have beendescribed herein.

EXAMPLE 40 Mode of Administration of Capxol and Invention Formulation ofOther Drugs

The invention formulations may be administered by intravenous infusion,intravenous bolus, intraperitoneal injection, intraarterial injection,intraportal injection, hepatic embolization, intratumoral injection orimplantation, intraurethral injection or iontophoresis, intramuscularinjection, subcutaneous injection, intrathecal injection, inhalation ofdry powder or nebulized liquid and the like.

EXAMPLE 41 Use of Capxol to Target Angiogenic Vasculature

Angiogenesis has been implicated as a causative and/or exacerbatingfactor in the progression of diseases such as cancer, rheumatoidarthritis, and retinopathy. We have surprisingly found that Capxol canreverse or reduce the severity of rheumatoid arthritis as well as curetumors in animal models. It is therefore possible that Capxol hasantiangiogenic activity. To make Capxol even more effective than, it ispossible to target angiogenic vasculature by attaching suitable peptidesto Capxol. Examples of such a peptide is RGD (arginine-glycine-asparticacid). Many other peptides with similar activity may be attached toCapxol or other drugs prepared by the invention process for targetedtherapy. The peptide/Capxol may be administered by conventional means topatients in need thereof.

EXAMPLE 42 Use of Capxol™ for Treatment of Liver Disease

End stage hepatocellular carcinoma and other cancers of the liver may betreated by administering Capxol intraportally. Embolization directlyinto the liver greatly enhances the dose reaching the liver. In additionmuch higher doses than conventional Taxol may be utilized to treat thedisease more efficiently. Also, suitable targeting agents such asproteins or peptides that localize in liver tissue may be combined withCapxol for greater therapeutic efficiency.

E. Examples Involving or Directly Pertaining to Preclinical Studies

EXAMPLE 43 Toxicity/Myelosuppression Study of Paclitaxel—Comparison ofBMS Formulation and Capxol™ for Single Dose Administration Study in Rats

A summary of the study is presented below.

Schedule: 1×, Single dose intravenous infusion (Day 1)

Animals: Sprague Dawley rats, 40 males, 40 females

5 rats/sex per group

Weight: 300±50 g

Study duration: 15 days

Treatment Groups: BMS (1 vehicle+3 treated groups)

Capxol™ (1 vehicle*+3 treated groups)(* vehicle is prepared by identical process described in manufacturingsection, with the exception that the addition of paclitaxel is omitted.)

Doses: BMS (0, 3, 6, and 9 mg/kg)

Capxol™ (0, 6, 9, and 12 mg/kg)

Dose Concentration: 0.6 mg/ml (all rats)

Dose volume: BMS (15, 5, 10, 15 ml/kg)

Capxol™ (20, 10, 15, and 20 ml/kg)

Infusion rate: Approximately 0.75 ml/hr (all rats)

Dose Route: I.V. infusion, tail vein

Clin obs: 1×/day

Clin Path: Days 0 (before treatment), 1, 3, 7, 11, 15.—Do std. List forNCI Tox Branch

Body weights: Days −1, 1, 3, 8, and 15

EXAMPLE 44 Pilot Myelosuppression Hematoloaic Toxicity Study

Prior to the initiation of the formal study, a pilot study with 3 ratsin the Capxol™ group and 3 rats in the BMS group was performed todetermine outcomes. The dose used was 5 mg/kg with a dosing volume of 7ml/kg. The dose was given as an intravenous bolus through the tail vein.The results of this study are summarized in the graph (see FIG. 3) whichshows the percent change in WBC counts (an indicator ofmyelosuppression) for each formulation as a function of time.

Conclusions of Pilot Myelosuppression Study:

The data shows significantly lower WBC counts (mean+SD) in the BMS groupcompared to the Capxol™ group indicating a greater degree ofmyelosuppression for the BMS formulation (maximum WBC suppressionof >70% for BMS; maximum WBC suppression of <30% for Capxol™). Analysisof the data shows a statistically significant difference (p<0.05)between the two groups for all data points except for day 0, 13 and 14.In addition, normal levels of WBC are recovered within 6 days in thegroup receiving Capxol™, while 14 days are required for recovery ofnormal WBC levels in the BMS group. This indicates a significantlyreduced hematological toxicity for Capxol™ If similar results are seenin human clinical trials, this data may suggest that the cycle time(currently 3 weeks for Taxol®) between subsequent cycles of treatmentcould be significantly reduced (possibly to 2 weeks, or even 1 week orless when using Capxol™.

EXAMPLE 45 Pilot Study of Antitumor Efficacy

Prior to the initiation of the above study, a pilot study with Capxol™was performed to determine the target dose ranges and efficacy. The mice(n=10) were implanted subcutaneously with the MX-1 mammary tumor and thetreatment was initiated when the tumor reached approximately 150-300 mgin size. This occurred by day 12 and the treatment was initiated on day13 after initial seeding. Capxol™ was reconstituted in saline to obtaina colloidal solution of nanoparticles of paclitaxel. The tumor bearingmice (n=5) were treated with reconstituted Capxol™ at a dose of 20 mg/kg(denoted by VIV-1), given by bolus tail vein injection every day forfive consecutive days. The control tumor bearing group (n=5) receivedonly saline on the same schedule. The size of the tumors was monitoredas a function of time. The control group showed a tremendous increase intumor weight to a median of more 4500 mg and all the animals in thisgroup were sacrificed between day 28 and day 39. The treatment group onthe other hand showed remarkable efficacy and all animals had nomeasurable tumors by day 25. The animals in this group were allsacrificed on day 39 at which time they showed no evidence of recurrenceand no evidence of tumor. The results are shown in FIG. 4.

CONCLUSION

This study showed remarkable antitumor activity for Capxol™. Thus, theantitumor activity of paclitaxel is preserved the Capxol™ formulation.This study indicates that the intravenous administration ofnanoparticles of paclitaxel can be as efficacious as administering thedrug in the soluble form. Thus, Capxol™ shows efficacy and potentanti-tumor activity without the toxic effects seen in the approved andmarketed cremaphor-containing BMS formulation.

Note: Based on literature data, and on experience of SR1 (SouthernResearch Institute) scientists, it has been established that the maximumtolerated dose (MTD) of paclitaxel dissolved in diluent 12(cremaphor/ethanol, which is the same diluent used in the BMSformulation) is 22.5 mg/kg for this particular strain of athymic mice.This result is obtained by dissolving paclitaxel at a much higherconcentration in diluent 12 compared to the marketed BMS formulation(BMS paclitaxel, 6 mg/ml in cremaphor/ethanol). This is done to minimizethe amount of cremaphor/ethanol administered to the mice to avoidvehicular toxicity. At a dose of 22.5 mg/kg, paclitaxel in diluent 12has similar efficacy to that of Capxol™ above.

EXAMPLE 46 Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis in an Animal Model withPaclitaxel Nanoparticles

The collagen induced arthritis model in the Louvain rat was used to testthe therapeutic effect of Paclitaxel nanoparticles on arthritis. The pawsizes of the experimental animals were monitored to evaluate theseriousness of arthritis.

After the arthritis was fully developed (usually ˜9-10 days aftercollagen injection), the experimental animals were divided intodifferent groups to receive either paclitaxel nanoparticles 1 mg/kgq.o.d, or paclitaxel nanoparticles 0.5 mg/kg+prednisone 0.2 mg/kg q.o.d.(combination treatment) intraperitoneally for 6 doses, then one dose perweek for three weeks. The paw sizes were measured at the beginning oftreatment (day 0) and every time the drug was injected. One groupreceived only normal saline as control. By the end of the experiment,the group receiving paclitaxel nanoparticles achieved a 42% reduction ofpaw size, the combination treatment group showed a 33% reduction of thepaw size, while the control group had about 20% increase of the pawsize. Original paw size before arthritis was induced was 50%. Theresults are shown in FIG. 2.

In conclusion, the paclitaxel-containing nanoparticles demonstratedtherapeutic effect on arthritis. To avoid side effects of long term useof both paclitaxel and the steroid, it is probably better to choose acombination treatment to get similar effect but only half the dosage ofeach drug.

EXAMPLE 47 The Effect of Capxol on Artery Restenosis

Abnormal vascular smooth muscle proliferation (VSMP) is associated withcardiovascular disorders such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and mostendovascular procedures. Abnormal VSMP is a common complication ofpercutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA). The incidence ofchronic restenosis resulting from VSMP following PTCA has been reportedto be as high as 40-50% within 3-6 months.

The high incidence of vascular reocclusion associated with PTCA has ledto development of in vivo animal model of restenosis and the search foragents to prevent it. The following study describes the use of Capxol ininhibiting restenosis following intimal trauma of the artery.

Male Sprague-Dawley Rats (Charles River) weighing 350-400 gm areanesthetized with Ketamin and Rompun and the right common carotid arteryis exposed for a distance of 3.0 cm. The adherent tissue is cleared toallow two DIETRICH micro bulldog clamps to be placed about 2 cm apartaround the carotid without causing crush injury to the vagus orassociated superior cervical ganglion and sympathetic cord. No branchesare present along this segment of the vessel. A 30-gauge needle attachedto a 3 way stopcock is first inserted and then pulled out of the lowerend of the isolated segment to make a hole on the wall of the vessel,and then inserted to the upper end for injection. 2-3 ml ofphosphate-buffered saline is injected to rinse out all the blood insidethe isolated segment then the 3-way stopcock is turned to anotherconnection to a regulated source of compressed air. A gentle stream ofair (25 ml. Per minute) is passed along the lumen of the vessel for 3minutes to produce drying injury of the endothelium. The segment is thenrefilled with saline prior to removal of the needle from the vessel.Before the clamps are removed the needle holes on the vessel wall arecarefully cauterized to prevent bleeding. A swab dampened with salinecan be used to press on the needle holes to stop bleeding also. The skinis closed with 7.5-mm metal clips and washed with Betadine.

All the animals received the surgery described above and be sacrificedat the fourteenth day after surgery. The carotid artery on each sidewere retrieved for pathologic examination. The non-operated side willserve as self control. The experimental groups received differenttreatment as follows:

Group 1: High dose Capxol treatment:

-   -   Paclitaxel 5 mg (w/100 mg Human Albumin)/kg/week, IV.        Group 2: Low dose Capxol treatment:    -   Paclitaxel 1 mg (w/20 mg Human Albumin)/kg/week, IV.        Group 3: Drug vehicle control.    -   Human Albumin 100 mg/kg/week. IV.

The carotid artery biopsy samples are preserved in Formalin and thencross sections (8 um) are cut from paraffin blocks and stained withhematoxylin and eosin. The cross-sectional areas of the blood vessellayers (intima, media, and adventitia) are quantified.

The injured Carotid Arteries in the control group showed remarkableaccumulation of intimal smooth muscle cells and VSMC invasion ofbasement membrane. The overall thickness of the wall of carotid arteryare doubled. The treatment groups showed a statistically significantdecrease in the intimal wall thickening compared to the control.

EXAMPLE 48 In Vivo Targeting of Nanoparticles

By incorporation of certain targeting moieties such as proteins,antibodies, enzymes, peptides, oligonucleotides, sugars,polysaccharides, and the like, into the protein coating of thenanoparticles, it is possible to target specific sites in the body. Thistargeting ability can be utilized for therapeutic or diagnosticpurposes.

EXAMPLE 49 Antibody Targeting of Polymeric Shells

The nature of the polymeric shells of certain aspects of the inventionallows for the attachment of monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies to thepolymeric shell, or the incorporation of antibodies into the polymericshell. Antibodies can be incorporated into the polymeric shell as thepolymeric microcapsule shell is being formed, or antibodies can beattached to the polymeric shell after preparation thereof. Standardprotein immobilization techniques can be used for this purpose. Forexample, with protein microcapsules prepared from a protein such asalbumin, a large number of amino groups on the albumin lysine residuesare available for attachment of suitably modified antibodies. As anexample, antitumor agents can be delivered to a tumor by incorporatingantibodies against the tumor into the polymeric shell as it is beingformed, or antibodies against the tumor can be attached to the polymericshell after preparation thereof. As another example, gene products canbe delivered to specific cells (e.g., hepatocytes or certain stem cellsin the bone marrow) by incorporating antibodies against receptors on thetarget cells into the polymeric shell as it is being formed, orantibodies against receptors on the target cells can be attached to thepolymeric shell after preparation thereof. In addition, monoclonalantibodies against nuclear receptors can be used to target theencapsulated product to the nucleus of certain cell types.

EXAMPLE 50 Targeting of Immunosuppressive Agent to Transplanted OrgansUsing Intravenous Delivery of Polymeric Shells Containing Such Agents

Immunosuppressive agents are extensively used following organtransplantation for the prevention of rejection episodes. In particular,cyclosporine, a potent immunosuppressive agent, prolongs the survival ofallogeneic transplants involving skin, heart, kidney, pancreas, bonemarrow, small intestine, and lung in animals. Cyclosporine has beendemonstrated to suppress some humoral immunity and to a greater extent,cell mediated reactions such as allograft rejection, delayedhypersensitivity, experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, Freund'sadjuvant arthritis, and graft versus host disease in many animal speciesfor a variety of organs. Successful kidney, liver and heart allogeneictransplants have been performed in humans using cyclosporine.

Cyclosporine is currently delivered in oral form either as capsulescontaining a solution of cyclosporine in alcohol, and oils such as cornoil, polyoxyethylated glycerides and the like, or as a solution in oliveoil, polyoxyethylated glycerides, and the like. It is also administeredby intravenous injection, in which case it is dissolved in a solution ofethanol (approximately 30%) and cremaphor (polyoxyethylated castor oil)which must be diluted 1:20 to 1:100 in normal saline or 5% dextroseprior to injection. Compared to an intravenous (i.v.) infusion, theabsolute bioavailibility of the oral solution is approximately 30%(Sandoz Pharmaceutical Corporation, Publication SDI-Z10 (A4), 1990). Ingeneral, the i.v. delivery of cyclosporine suffers from similar problemsas the currently practiced i.v. delivery of Taxol, i.e., anaphylacticand allergic reactions believed to be due to the Cremaphor, the deliveryvehicle employed for the i.v. formulation. In addition, the intravenousdelivery of drug (e.g., cyclosporine) encapsulated as described hereavoids dangerous peak blood levels immediately following administrationof drug. For example, a comparison of currently available formulationsfor cyclosporine with the above-described encapsulated form ofcyclosporine showed a five-fold decrease in peak blood levels ofcyclosporine immediately following injection.

In order to avoid problems associated with the cremaphor, cyclosporinecontained within polymeric shells as described above may be delivered byi.v. injection. It may be dissolved in a biocompatible oil or a numberof other solvents following which it may be dispersed into polymericshells by sonication as described above. In addition, an importantadvantage to delivering cyclosporine (or other immunosuppressive agent)in polymeric shells has the advantage of local targeting due to uptakeof the injected material by the RES system in the liver. This may, tosome extent, avoid systemic toxicity and reduce effective dosages due tolocal targeting.

EXAMPLE 51 Use of Capxol for Antibody Targeting

Monoclonal antibodies against various tumors or tissues may be attachedto Capxol to enable targeting of Capxol or other drugs prepared by theinvention process to the sites of disease. For example, antibodiesagainst ovarian cancer attached to Capxol and administeredintraperitoneally would have great benefit to ovarian cancer patients.

EXAMPLE 52 Intravenous Administration of Therapeutics

Intravenous administration of therapeutics, for example, drugs, imagingagents, and the like, predisposes the therapeutic to at least one passthrough the liver. As that therapeutic is filtered through the liver, asignificant portion of that therapeutic is taken up and sequestered bythe liver, and therefore, not available for systemic distribution.Moreover, once taken up by the liver, it is likely to be metabolized,and the resulting metabolic byproducts often have general systemictoxicities. By encapsulating the drug or other therapeutic agent in acoating according to the invention (e.g., using a protein such asalbumin), liver sequestration upon intravenous administration isalleviated. Albumin, for example, is known to pass through the liver andbecome generally distributed throughout the patient. Thus, thesequestration of albumin by the liver does not occur to the same degreeas toxic compounds or drugs which have hepatic receptors (or othermechanisms) which initiate processes which result in their removal fromthe blood stream. By protecting the therapeutic with a coating of abiocompatible polymer (e.g., a human albumin coating), the drug thenbypasses the liver and is generally distributed through all organsystems. In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, thereis provided a novel method for bypassing the liver, which comprisesencapsulating a drug in a human liver albumin (essentially aphysiological component). In this way, more of the drug becomesavailable for systemic therapy. In addition to the increasedavailability of the drug, there is a decrease in the production ofmetabolic byproducts of hepatocellular drug degradation. Both theincrease in liver bypass and decrease in byproducts of drug metabolismprovide a synergistic improvement in the overall drug efficacy. Thisimproved efficacy extends to all drugs and materials that areencapsulated in human albumin.

EXAMPLE 53 Reducing Myelosuppressive (Hematologic Toxicity) Effects andGeneral Toxicity of Drugs

Several chemotherapeutic drugs have dose limiting toxicity due to theirmyelosuppressive effects. Taxol (paclitaxel) is a classic example ofsuch a drug. When administered in its currently approved formulation ofcremaphor/ethanol, Taxol produces myelosuppressive effects that limitthe repeat administration of the drug and preclude pretreatment of apatient for at least 3 weeks in order to allow blood counts of thepatient to return to normal. It was postulated that due to the non-toxicbiocompatible nature of the drug carrier of certain aspects of thepresent invention, viz. human albumin, the toxic side effect ofmyelosuppression may be greatly reduced.

Sprague dawley rats were given paclitaxel in commercial formulation(available from Bristol Myers Squibb (BMS) in cremaphor/ethanol,hereinafter referred to as Taxol) or prepared by an invention method asnanoparticles with albumin. Both formulations were administered by tailvein injection. A single dose level of 5 mg/kg was administered for theTaxol formulation, whereas two dose levels of 5 mg/kg and 12 mg/kg wereadministered for the invention formulation. The white blood cell countsof the rats were monitored daily after administration as an index ofmyelosuppression.

For the Taxol formulation (5 mg/kg) it was found that the WBC countsdropped by 47.6% and 63.5% on day 1 and day 2 after administration,respectively, whereas for the invention formulation at 5 mg/kg, the WBCcounts increased by 14.7% and 2.4% on day 1 and day 2, respectively. Forthe higher dose invention formulation at 12 mg/kg, the WBC countsincreased by 6.5% and 3.6% on day 1 and day 2, respectively.

These results indicate that short term myelosuppression is greatlyreduced by administering the drug in the present invention formulation.

Another indicator of general toxicity is the body weight of the animal.Body weights of the rats were also monitored following administration ofpaclitaxel. At a dose of 5 mg/kg, the Taxol formulation resulted in areduction of body eight by 10.4% in 3 days following administration,whereas the same dose of paclitaxel administered in the inventionformulation resulted in only a 3.9% drop in body weight, indicating thegreatly reduced toxicity of the invention formulation.

It is very surprising that when the invention formulation and Taxol areadministered to rats at equivalent doses of paclitaxel, a much higherdegree of myelosuppression results for the Taxol group compared to theinvention formulation group. This can result in lower incidences ofinfections and fever episodes (e.g., febrile neutropenia). It can alsoreduce the cycle time in between treatments which is currently 21 daysfor Taxol®. With the use of pharmaceutical compositions preparedaccording to the resent invention, this cycle time may be reduced to 2weeks, 1 week, or less allowing for more effective treatment forcancers. Thus the use of pharmaceutical compositions prepared accordingto the present invention may provide substantial advantage over Taxol.

EXAMPLE 54 Administration of Bolus Dose of Nanoparticle Formulation

The anticancer drug, paclitaxel, in its commercial BMS formulation withcremaphor/ethanol, cannot be administered as an intravenous bolus. Thisis due to the extensive toxicity of the vehicle which results in severeanaphylactic reactions and requires patients receiving the drug to bepre-medicated with steroids, antihistamines, and the like. The Taxol®formulation is administered as an intravenous infusion lasting anywherefrom 1 hour to 24 hours. In contrast, formulations according to thepresent invention, due to the use of a non-toxic carrier, can beadministered to a patient readily as an intravenous bolus (i.e., in aperiod less than 1 hour) without the toxicity problems seen in Taxol®formulation that is used clinically today.

The effective dose of paclitaxel for a patient typically lies between200-500 mg, depending on the patient body weight or body surface. Taxol®has to be administered at a final dosing concentration of 0.6 mg/ml,requiring large infusion volumes (typically in the range of about300-1000 ml.

In contrast, invention formulations do not have these limitations andcan be administered at a desired concentration.

This enables clinicians to treat patients by a rapid intravenous bolusthat can be administered in as little as a few minutes. For example, ifthe invention formulation is reconstituted to a dosing concentration of20 mg/ml, the infusion volume for a total dose of 200-500 mg is only10-25 ml, respectively. This is a great advantage in clinical practice.

EXAMPLE 55 Reduction in Toxicity of Paclitaxel in the NanoparticleFormulation Compared to Taxol

It is well known that the anticancer drug, paclitaxel, in its commercialformulation with cremaphor/ethanol (i.e., Taxol), has extensive toxicitywhich results in severe anaphylactic reactions and requires patientsreceiving the drug to be pre-medicated with steroids, antihistamines,and the like. The toxicity of the BMS formulation was compared to thenanoparticle formulation of the present invention.

Thus, the formulations were injected intravenously through the tail veinof C57BL mice at different dose levels and toxic effects were monitoredby general observation of mice after the injection.

For Taxol, a dose of 30 mg/kg was uniformly lethal within 5 minutes ofintravenous administration. For the same dose, the nanoparticleformulation according to the invention showed no apparent toxic effects.The nanoparticle formulation at a dose of 103 mg/kg showed somereduction in body weight of the mice, but even this high dose was notlethal. Doses of approximately 1000 mg/kg, 800 mg/kg and 550 mg/kg wereall lethal but differing in time to lethality, which ranged between afew hours to 24 hours. Thus, the lethal dose of the inventionformulation is greater than 103 mg/kg but less than 550 mg/kg.

It is therefore clear that the lethal dose of the invention formulationof paclitaxel is substantially higher than that of Taxol formulation.This has great significance in clinical practice where higher doses ofchemotherapeutic drugs may be administered for more effective oncolyticactivity with greatly reduced toxicity.

EXAMPLE 56 Determination of the LD₅₀ in Mice for Taxol Produced byInvention Methods and Taxol Following a Single IntravenousAdministration

The LD₅₀ of Capxol™, Taxol and their carrier vehicles as comparedfollowing a single intravenous administration. A total of 48 CD1 micewere used. Paclitaxel doses of 30, 103, 367, 548, and 822 mg/kg weretested for Capxol™ and doses of 4, 6, 9, 13.4, and 20.1 mg/kg paclitaxelfor Taxol. The dose for human albumin, the vehicle for Capxol™, was onlytested at 4.94 g/kg (corresponds to a dose of 548 mg/mL Capxol™) becausehuman albumin is not considered toxic to humans. The doses tested forthe Taxol vehicle (Cremophor EL®) were 1.5, 1.9, 2.8, and 3.4 mL/kgwhich correspond to doses of 9, 11.3, 16.6, and 20.1 mg/kg ofpaclitaxel, respectively. Three to four mice were dosed with eachconcentration. The results indicated that paclitaxel administered inCapxol™ is less toxic than Taxol or the Taxol vehicle thereofadministered alone. The LD₅₀ and LD₁₀ for Capxol™ were 447.4 and 371.5mg/kg of paclitaxel, 7.53 and 5.13 mg/kg of paclitaxel in Taxol, and1325 and 794 mg/kg of the Taxol vehicle, (corresponds to a dose of 15.06and 9.06 mg/kg Taxol). In this study, the LD₅₀ for Capxol™ was 59 timesgreater than Taxol and 29 times greater than the Taxol vehicle alone.The LD₁₀ for paclitaxel in Capxol™ was 72 times greater than paclitaxelin Taxol. Review of all the data in this study suggests that the Taxolvehicle is responsible for much of the toxicity of Taxol. It was seenthat the mice receiving Taxol and Taxol vehicle showed classic signs ofsevere hypersensitivity indicated by bright pink skin coloration shortlyafter administration. No such reaction was seen for the Capxol™ andCapxol™ vehicle groups. Results are presented in Table 2. TABLE 2 SingleIntravenous Administration # of Animals MTD or Dose sssss # of % LD₅₀LD₁₀ Group (mg/kg) (n) Deaths Survival (mg/kg) (mg/kg) Invention 822 3 30 447.4 371.5 548 4 4 0 367 3 0 100 103 3 0 100 30 3 0 100 Taxol 20.1 44 0 7.53 5.13 13.4 4 4 0 9 3 2 33 6 4 1 75 4 3 0 100

These high doses of Capxol™ were administered as bolus injections andrepresent the equivalent of approximately 80-2000 mg/m² dose in humans.The LD₁₀ or maximum tolerated dose of Capxol™ in this study isequivalent to approximately 1000 mg/m² in humans. This is significantlyhigher than the approved human dose of 175 mg/m² for Taxol.

To our surprise, it was found that the vehicle, Cremophor/Ethanol, alonecaused severe hypersensitivity reactions and death in several dosegroups of mice. The LD₅₀ data for the Taxol vehicle alone shows that itis considerably more toxic than Capxol™ and significantly contributes tothe toxicity of Taxol. It has been unclear in the literature, the causeof hypersensitivity, however, based on these data, we believe that HSR'scan be attributed to the Taxol vehicle.

EXAMPLE 57 Determination of the LD₅₀ in Mice of Taxol® and TaxolFollowing Multiple Intravenous Administration

The LD₅₀ of Capxol™ and BMS-Taxol and their carrier were comparedfollowing single intravenous administrations. A total of 32 CD1 micewere used. Capxol™ with paclitaxel doses of 30, 69, and 103 mg/kg wereadministered daily for five consecutive days. Taxol with paclitaxeldoses of 4, 6, 9, 13.4, and 20.1 mg/kg was administered daily for 5consecutive days. Four mice were dosed with each concentration. Resultsare presented in Table 3. TABLE 3 Multiple Intravenous AdministrationsMTD Dose # of # of # of LD₅₀ or Group (mg/kg) Animals Deaths Survival(mg/kg LD₁₀ Capxol ™ 103 4 4 0 76 64 69 4 1 75 30 4 0 100 Taxol 20.1 4 40 8.0 4.3 13.4 4 4 0 9 4 2 50 6 4 1 75 4 4 0 100The results indicated that Capxol™ is less toxic than Taxol. The LD₅₀and LD₁₀ of Capxol™ were 76.2 and 64.5 mg/kg of paclitaxel,respectively, compared to 8.07 and 4.3 mg/kg of paclitaxel in Taxol,respectively. In this study, the LD₅₀ for Capxol™ was 9.4 times higherthan for Taxol. The LD₁₀ for Capxol™ was 15 times higher for Capxol™than for Taxol. The results of this study suggests that the Capxol™ isless toxic than Taxol® when administered in multiple doses at dailyintervals.

EXAMPLE 58 Toxicity and Efficacy of Two Formulations of Capxol™ andTaxol®

A study was performed to determine the efficacy of Capxol™, Taxol, andthe Capxol™ vehicle in female athymic NCr-nu mice implanted with MX-1human mammary tumor fragments.

Groups of 5 mice each were given intravenous injections of Capxol™formulations VR-3 or VR-4 at doses of 13.4, 20, 30, 45 mg/kg/day for 5days. Groups of 5 mice were also each given intravenous injections ofTaxol at doses of 13.4, 20 and 30 mg/kg/day for five days. A controlgroup of ten mice was treated with an intravenous injection of Capxol™vehicle control (Human Albumin, 600 mg/kg/day) for 5 days. Evaluationparameters were the number of complete tumor regressions, the meanduration of complete regression, tumor-free survivors, and tumorrecurrences.

Treatment with Capxol™ formulation VR-3 resulted in complete tumorregressions at all dose levels. The two highest doses resulted in 100%survival after 103 days. Capxol™ formulation VR-4 resulted in completetumor regression in the three highest dose groups, and 60% regressionsat 13.4 mg/kg/day. Survival rates after 103 days were somewhat less thanwith formulation VR-4. Treatment with Taxol at 30, 20, and 13.4mg/kg/day resulted in 103 day survival rates of 40%, 20%, and 20%respectively. Treatment with the control vehicle had no effect on tumorgrowth and the animals were sacrificed after 33 to 47 days. Results arepresented in Table 4. TABLE 4 DCR NonSpecific Dosage CR/Total TSF/TR(days) Deaths/Total (mg/kg/day) VR- VR- TAX VR- VR- TAX VR- VR- TAX VR-VR- TAX 45 5/5 5/5 NA 5/0 3/2 NA >88 >73 NA 0/5 0/5 NA 30 5/5 5/5 4/45/0 5/0 2/2 >88 >88 >56 0/5 0/5 1/5 20 5/5 5/5 4/4 1/4 2/31/3 >51 >47 >57 0/5 0/5 1/5 13 4/5 3/5 4/5 0/5 0/5 1/4 10 8 >29 0/5 0/50/5CR = Complete tumor regression;TFS = Tumor free survivor;TR = Tumor recurrence;DCR = days of complete regression

These unexpected and surprising results show an increased efficacy forthe two Capxol™ formulations compared to Taxol. In addition, higherdoses of paclitaxel are achieved in the Capxol™ groups due to lowertoxicity of the formulation. These high doses were administered as bolusinjections.

EXAMPLE 40 Blood Kinetics and Tissue Distribution on ³H-Taxol® andCapxol™ Following a Single Intravenous Dose in the Rat

Two studies were performed to compare the pharmacokinetics and tissuedistribution of ³H-paclitaxel formulated in Capxol™ and Taxol InjectionConcentrate. Fourteen male rats were intravenously injected with 10mg/kg of ³H-Taxol and 10 rats with 4.9 mg/kg. Ten male rats wereintravenously injected with 5.1 mg/kg ³H-Capxol in the above study.

Levels of both total radioactivity and paclitaxel decline bi-phasicallyin blood of rats following 5 mg/kg IV bolus doses of either ³H-Taxol or³H-Capxol™. However, the levels of both total radioactivity andpaclitaxel are significantly lower following administration of³H-Capxol™ following a similar H-Taxol dose. This lower level is morerapidly distributed out of the blood.

The blood HPLC profile shows a similar pattern of metabolism to highlypolar metabolite(s) for both ³H-Capxol™ and ³H-Taxol. However, the rateof metabolism appears significantly slower for ³H-Capxol as 44.2% ofblood radioactivity remains as paclitaxel 24 hours post-dose versus27.7% for ³H-Taxol. The excretion of radioactivity occurs only minimallyin the urine and predominantly in the feces for ³H-Capxol™ which issimilar to reported excretion patterns for ³H-Taxol. The blood kineticsfor total radioactivity and paclitaxel following IV administration of³H-Capxol™ or ³H-Taxol at 5 mg/kg are presented in Table 5. TABLE 5AUC₀₋₂₄ Extrapolated Observed Observed (mg eq · C₀ C_(max) (mg T_(max)t_(1/2)β Treatment hr/mL) (mg eq/mL) eq/(mL) (hr) (hr) Total 6.1 7.6 4.20.03 19.0 Radioactivity ³H-Capxol ™ 10.2 19.7 13.5 0.03 19.7 ³H-TaxolPaclitaxel 3.7 7.0 4.0 0.03 11.4 3H-Capxol ™ 5.4 17.1 11.8 0.03 7.23H-Taxol

The tissue radioactivity levels are higher following ³H-Capxol™administration than ³H-Taxol administration for 12 of 14 tissues. Thetissue/blood ppm ratios are higher in all tissues for ³H-Capxol™ dosedanimals as the blood levels are lower. This supports the rapiddistribution of ³H-Capxol™ from the blood to the tissues suggested bythe blood kinetic data.

³H-Paclitaxel formulated in Capxol™ shows a similar pharmacokineticprofile to ³H— paclitaxel formulated in Taxol® for Injectionconcentrate, but tissue/blood ppm ratios and metabolism rates differsignificantly. A significantly lower level of total radioactivity forCapxol™ treated animals than for Taxol® treated animals in the 2 minutepost administration blood sample indicates that the ³H-Capxol is morerapidly distributed out of the blood. However, the rate of metabolismappears significantly slower for ³H-Capxol™ as 44% of blood reactivityremains as paclitaxel at 24 hours post-administration versus 28% for³H-Taxol®.

This finding for Capxol™ is surprising and provides a novel formulationto achieve sustained activity of paclitaxel compared to Taxol. Takentogether with local high concentrations, this enhanced activity shouldresult in increased efficacy for the treatment of primary tumors ormetastases in organs with high local concentrations.

Tissue distributions are presented in Table 6 below. The data representthe mean and standard deviations of 10 rats in each group (Capxol™ andTaxol). TABLE 6 Radioactive Residues in Tissues of Male Rats. Expressedas ppm following a single intravenous dose of ³H-Capxol ™ and ³H-Taxol ®at 5 mg/kg Capxol ™ Taxol Mean Mean Sample Values ± SD Values ± SD Brain0.106 0.008 0.145 0.020 Heart 0.368 0.063 0.262 0.037 Lung 1.006 0.1400.694 0.057 Liver 1.192 0.128 1.37 0.204 Kidney 0.670 0.110 0.473 0.068Muscle 0.422 0.120 0.386 0.035 GI Tract 0.802 0.274 0.898 0.243 Testes0.265 0.023 0.326 0.047 Pancreas 0.963 0.357 0.468 0.070 Carcass 0.5960.070 0.441 0.065 Bone 0.531 0.108 0.297 0.051 Spleen 0.912 0.131 0.4930.070 Prostate 1.728 0.356 1.10 0.161 Seminal Vesicles 1.142 0.253 1.200.237 Blood 0.131 0.010 0.181 0.020 Plasma 0.131 0.012 0.196 0.026

The data show significantly higher levels of accumulation of Capxol™ inthe several organs when compared to Taxol®. These organs includeprostate, pancreas, kidney, lung, heart, bone, and spleen. Thus Capxol™may be more effective than Taxol® in the treatment of cancers of theseorgans at equivalent levels of paclitaxel.

Levels in the prostate tissue are of particular interest in thetreatment of prostatic cancer. This surprising and unexpected result hasimplications for the treatment of prostate cancer. Table 7 below showsthe data for individual rats (10 in each group) showing increasedaccumulation of paclitaxel in the prostate for Capxol™ as compared toTaxol®. The basis for the localization within the prostate could be aresult of the particle size of the formulation (20-400 nm), or thepresence the protein albumin in the formulation which may causelocalization into the prostatic tissue through specific membranereceptors (gp 60, gp 18, gp 13 and the like). It is also likely thatother biocompatible, biodegradable polymers other than albumin may showspecificity to certain tissues such as the prostate resulting in highlocal concentration of paclitaxel in these tissues as a result of theproperties described above. Such biocompatible materials arecontemplated to be within the scope of this invention. A preferredembodiment of a composition to achieve high local concentrations ofpaclitaxel in the prostate is a formulation containing paclitaxel andalbumin with a particle size in the range of 20-400 nm, and free ofcremophor. This embodiment has also been demonstrated to result inhigher level concentrations of paclitaxel in the pancreas, kidney, lung,heart, bone, and spleen when compared to Taxol at equivalent doses.TABLE 7 Data for 10 rats in each group Dose 5 mg/kg paclitaxelINVENTION-Taxol Taxol ® 1.228 1.13 2.463 1.04 1.904 0.952 1.850 1.421.660 1.31 1.246 1.08 1.895 1.03 1.563 0.95 1.798 0.94 1.676 1.18 Mean1.728 Mean 1.103 SD 0.36 SD 0.16

This data shows that the localication of Capxol™ to the prostate isabout 150% compared to Taxol®.

This unexpected localization of paclitaxel to the prostate in theCapxol™ formulation may be exploited for the delivery of otherpharmacologically active agents to the prostate for the treatment ofother disease states affecting that organ, e.g., antibiotics in asimilar formulation for the treatment of prostatitis (inflammation andinfection of the prostate), therapeutic agents effective for thetreatment of benign prostatic hypertrophy maybe formulated in a similarfashion to achieve high local delivery. Similarly, the surprisingfinding that Capxol™ provides high local concentrations to the heart canbe exploited for the treatment of restenosis as well as atheroscleroticdisease in coronary vessels. Paclitaxel has been demonstrated to have atherapeutic effect in the prevention of restenosis and atherosclerosisand Capxol™ thus is an ideal vehicle. Furthermore it has beendemonstrated that polymerized albumin preferentially binds to inflamedendothelial vessels possibly through gp60, gp18 and gp13 receptors.

EXAMPLE 60 Blood Kinetics and Tissue Distribution of PaclitaxelFollowing Multiple Intravenous Dose Levels of Capxol™ in the Rat

The study using ³H-Capxol™ was supplemented by treating four additionalgroups of rats with a single bolus dose of 9.1 mg/kg, 26.4 mg/kg, 116.7mg/kg, and 148.1 mg/kg of paclitaxel in Capxol™. Blood was collectedfrom the tail vein and the AUC₀₋₂₄ was calculated. At 24 hours, bloodsamples were collected; extracted, and the extract injected on HPLC todetermine the level of parent compound in the blood.

The blood kinetics for total radioactivity and paclitaxel following IVadministration of 3H-Capxol™ are presented in Table 8. TABLE 8 AUC₀₋₂₄Extrapolated Observed Observed Group/Dose (μg eq · C₀ C_(max) T_(max)t_(1/2)β (mg/kg) hr/ml) (μg eq/ml) (μg eq/(ml) (hr) (hr) A/9.1 11.5 10.27.19 0.03 22.3 B/26.4 43.5 44.8 29.5 0.03 16.0 C/116.7 248.9 644.6 283.30.03 8.48 D/148.1 355.3 1009.8 414.2 0.03 9.34

As the dose of paclitaxel was increased, the area under the curve wasproportionally increased. The level of parent compound after 24 hourswas increased by a factor of 8.5 (0.04 ppm-0.34 ppm), going from the 9mg/kg dose to the 148 mg/kg dose.

EXAMPLE 61 Determination of the Toxicity in Rats of Capxol™ and TaxolFollowing a Single Intravenous Administration

The objective of the study was to determine the toxicity of Capxol™following a single IV administration in male and female rats. Capxol™was administered to 6 male and 6 female rats at doses of 5, 9, 30, 90and 120 mg/kg. One half of the animals from each dose group wereeuthanized and necropsied on Day 8. The remaining animals werenecropsied on Day 31. The results of Capxol™-treated animals werecompared to the results of normal saline and vehicle control groups aswell as to the results of animals treated with 5, 9 and 30 mg/kg Taxol.

Animals were examined immediately after dosing, 1 hour and 4 hours pastadministration, and once daily thereafter. Blood was collected from eachanimal for hematological and serum determination prior to euthanasia.

Thirteen deaths occurred during the 30 day observation period. All 12animals treated with Taxol at a dose of 30 mg/kg paclitaxel died by day4. Only one animal treated with Capxol™ died. The Capxol™ treated animalreceived 90 mg/kg paclitaxel and was found dead on day 15. No otheranimals treated with Capxol™ died at the 90 kg or 120 mg/kg dose,therefore the death is not thought to be treatment related.

During the first four hour observation period, piloerection andstaggering gait were observed in the majority of animals treated withTaxol, possibly due to the alcohol content of the drug. Piloerection wasnoted in a few animals treated with Capxol™. Animals treated with Taxolat a dose of 30 mg/kg paclitaxel were observed with piloerection andlethargy and were found dead by day 4. No overt signs of toxicity wereobserved in Capxol™ treated animals, except for a few incidences ofpiloerection at the 90 mg/ml and 120 mg/ml dose levels.

No abnormalities were reported in Capxol™ treated animals. Grossnecropsy results for day 8 and day 31 were normal. Significant doserelated changes were seen in the male reproductive organs in animalstreated with Capxol™. A degeneration and vacuolation of epididymalductal epithelial cells, often accompanied by multifocal interstitiallymphocytic infiltrate, was observed. There was increasing severeatrophy of seminiferous tubules seen in the testes as the dose ofCapxol™ increased. In the pathologist's opinion, there were significantlesions observed in the male reproductive organs of the animals treatedwith 9, 30, 90, and 120 mg/kg Capxol™. These changes involved diffusedegeneration and necrosis of the testes. These changes were the mostprevalent in animals that received higher doses of Capxol™. No changeswere seen in the testes from untreated control animals, vehicle controlanimals, or those treated with Taxol.

This finding is unexpected and has significant therapeutic implicationsfor the treatment of hormone dependent cancers such as prostate cancer.Removal of the testes (orchiectomy) is a therapeutic approach to thetreatment of prostate cancer. Capxol™ represents a novel formulation forthe treatment of this disease by achieving high local concentration ofpaclitaxel at that site, by sustained activity of the active ingredient,by reduction of testicular function and without the toxic cremophorvehicle. Treatment with Capxol™ thus allows for reduction in levels oftestosterone and other androgen hormones.

Cerebral cortical necrosis was seen at the mid dose level of the Taxoltreated animals. This may explain the deaths of the animals treated witheven higher doses of Taxol. No cerebral lesions were seen in animalstreated with Capxol™.

This lack of cerebral or neurologic toxicity is surprising and hassignificant implications in both the treatment of brain tumors and theability to achieve high systemic doses ranging from 5-120 mg/kg in rats(equivalent to 30-700 mg/m² dose in humans)

To summarize, Capxol™ was considerably less toxic than Taxol. No Taxolanimals survived at the doses higher than 9 mg/kg. With the exception ofan incidental death at 90 mg/kg Capxol™, all animals which receivedCapxol™ survived at doses up to and including 120 mg/kg. There was ahigh dose-related effect of Capxol™ on the male reproductive organs anda suppression in male body weight. Female rats did not demonstrate anytoxic effects from the administration of Capxol™ at doses up to andincluding 120 mg/kg. These high doses were administered as bolusinjections and represent the equivalent of 30-700 mg/m² dose in humans.

EXAMPLE 62 Pharmacokinetic (PK) Data for Cyclosporine Nanoparticles(Capsorine I.V.) Following Intravenous Administration Comparison withSandimmune I.V. (Formulation Currently Marketed by Sandoz)

Nanoparticles of cyclosporine (Capsorine I.V.) prepared as describedabove (Examples 13 and 14) were reconstituted in saline and administeredto a first group of 3 Sprague Dawley rats by intravenous bolus. A secondgroup of 3 rats were given Sandimmune I.V., which containscremaphor/ethanol, after dilution in saline. Each group received thesame dose of 2.5 mg/kg cyclosporine. Blood samples were taken at times0, 5, 15, 30 (minutes), and 1, 2, 4, 8, 24, 36 and 48 (hours). Levels ofcyclosporine in the blood were assayed by HPLC and typical PK parameterswere determined. The PK curves showed typical decay over time asfollows: Decay Over Time AUC, mg-hr/ml Cmax, ng/ml Capsorine I.V. 12,2282,853 Sandimmune I.V. 7,791 2,606In addition, due to toxicity of the Sandimmune I.V. formulation, 2 of 3rats in that group died within 4 hours after dosing. Thus thenanoparticle formulation (Capsorine I.V.) according to the presentinvention shows a greater AUC and no toxicity compared to thecommercially available formulation (Sandimmune I.V.).

EXAMPLE 63 Pharmacokinetic (PK) Data for Cyclosporine Nanodroplets(Capsorine Oral) Following Oral Administration Comparison with Neoral(Formulation Currently Marketed by Sandoz)

Nanodroplets of cyclosporine prepared above were administered in orangejuice, to a first group of 3 Sprague Dawley rats by oral gavage. Asecond group of 3 rats were given Neoral, a commercially availablemicroemulsion formulation containing emulsifiers, after dilution inorange juice, also by oral gavage. Each group received the same dose of12 mg/kg cyclosporine in an identical volume of orange juice. Bloodsamples were taken at times 0, 5, 15, 30 (minutes), and 1, 2, 4, 8, 24,36 and 48 (hours). Levels of cyclosporine in the blood were assayed byHPLC and typical PK parameters were determined. The PK curves showedtypical decay over time as follows: Decay Over Time AUC, mg-hr/ml Cmax,ng/ml Capsorine Oral 3,195 887 Neoral 3,213 690Thus, the nanodroplet formulation (Capsorine Oral) of the presentinvention shows a similar PK behavior to the commercially availableformulation (Neoral).

EXAMPLE 64 Clinical Investigation with Capxol™: Objectives andAdvantages

The rationale for selecting the initial dose for Phase I/II trials willbe based on the dramatically lower preclinical toxicity data for theCapxol™ formulation compared to Taxol formulation. The preclinical dataabove indicates that initial dosing levels of Capxol™ for Phase I/IIstudies will use the established MTD (maximum tolerated dose) forpaclitaxel in the Taxol formulation. Based on the current preclinicaldata, it is anticipated at this time that the clinical objectives formarket approval will be to eliminate the need for premedication prior toadministration of paclitaxel; determine equivalent dose of Capxol™ toTaxol—i.e., to determine the dose at which equivalent antitumor responseis obtained; and eliminate the need for continuous i.v. infusion (3 to24 hours) for paclitaxel administration and replace by administrationover much shorter periods (<1 hour or bolus).

There are many potential advantages of the Capxol™ formulation forpaclitaxel. Capxol™ is a lyophilized powder containing only paclitaxeland human serum albumin. Due to the nature of the colloidal solutionformed upon reconstitution of the lyophilized powder toxic emulsifiers,such as cremaphor (in the BMS formulation of paclitaxel) or polysorbate80 (as in the Rhone Poulenc formulation of docetaxel), and solvents suchas ethanol to solubilize the drug, are not required. Removing toxicemulsifers will reduce the incidences of severe hypersensitivity andanaphylactic reactions that are known to occur from products like Taxol.

In addition, no premedication with steroids and antihistamines areanticipated prior to administration of the drug.

Due to reduced toxicities, as evidenced by the LD₁₀/LD₅₀ studies, higherdoses may be employed which will result in greater efficacy.

The reduction in myelosuppression (as compared with Taxol) is expectedto reduce the period of the treatment cycle (currently 3 weeks) andimprove therapeutic outcomes.

Capxol™ can be administered at much higher concentrations (up to 20mg/ml) compared with Taxol (0.6 mg/ml), allowing much lower volumeinfusions, and possibly administration as an intravenous bolus.

A recognized problem with Taxol is the precipitation of paclitaxel inindwelling catheters. This results in erratic and poorly controlleddosing. Due to the inherent stability of the colloidal solution of thenew formulation, Capxol™, the problem of precipitation is alleviated.

The literature suggests that particles in the low hundred nanometer sizerange preferentially partition into tumors through leaky blood vesselsat the tumor site. The colloidal particles of paclitaxel in the Capxol™formulation are therefore expected to show a preferential targetingeffect, greatly reducing the side effects of paclitaxel administered inthe BMS formulation.

EXAMPLE 65 Outline of Capxol™ Clinical Trial Design

Indication:

Metastatic Breast cancer

Dosing plan:

The rationale for selecting the initial dose for Phase I/II trials willbe based on the significantly lower preclinical toxicity data (Singledose LD₁₀ data in mice) for the Capxol™ formulation compared to the BMSformulation. The single dose LD₁₀ in mice is determined to be 398.1mg/kg. Conversion of this dose to a surface area basis (3 times themg/kg value) gives an estimate of 1194.3 or about 1200 mg/m². Aconservative starting dose 1/10th of this value for humans results in adose of 120 mg/m². However, it is already well established thatpaclitaxel is safe at a dose of 175 mg/m² and based on a pilot studywith Capxol™ showing lower myelosuppression in rats, a dose of 175 mg/m²should be safe for the Capxol™ formulation. The Capxol™ solution will bedelivered in approximately 15-30 minutes or less, if possible.

EXAMPLE 66 Outline of Capxol™ Clinical Development Program: CombinationPhase I/II Dose Finding Study/Limited Efficacy Trial

Patients/Purpose: Patients having advanced breast metastatic diseaserefractory to standard therapies. The goal of this trial will be toestablish the response rate to Capxol™ as a single agent in patientswith metastatic breast cancer.

Dosing—Phase I Component: The initial dose to be used in the Phase Icomponent of the trial will be the known maximum tolerated dose (MTD)for Paclitaxel (175 mg/m²). Subsequent doses will be escalated in 25%steps until the MTD is reached. There will be 3 patients at each of theinitial Capxol™ dose levels, expanding to 6 patients at the MTD. Theability to move to the next dose level will be based on the adverseevent pattern. That is, the study will be discontinued whenever 2 ormore patients out of 6 at a particular dose level exhibit Grade 3non-myelosuppressive toxicity or Grade 4 myelosuppressive toxicity (onthe WHO Toxicity scale). The dose for Capxol™ will be designated as thedose immediately preceding the dose at which the trial was discontinued.Alternative schedules of drug administration, such as daily ×5 or 24hour infusion may also be explored if necessary, based on the results ofthe initial, single dose bolus schedule.

Pharmacokinetics: For selected patients, a full pharmacokinetic studywill be performed using serum drawn at appropriately designated timepoints. Parameters such as t^(1/2) (α and β phase), AUC, C_(max),Clearance and volume of distribution will be determined.

Patients—Phase II Component: Having established the MTD, breast cancerpatients similar to those used in the original Paclitaxel trials will beselected for the Phase II component. The number will be based on thedesire to establish tumor response rate with acceptable precision at the95% confidence level. As such, the study will be single armed with thegoal of establishing equivalence with standard Paclitaxel by showingthat the confidence interval contains the expected response rates forCapxol™. The patient sample size used will be 30 patients, which iscommon for the Phase II component of a Phase I/II study.

Measurement: The primary outcome will be the tumor response rate (CR/PR)for the enrolled patients. In addition, the time to response, durationof response, and survival time will be monitored. Safety of thetreatment will also be evaluated from adverse event rates and changes instandard laboratory parameters.

1-65. (canceled)
 66. A composition comprising paclitaxel and an albumin,wherein the weight ratio of the total amount of albumin to the totalamount of the taxane in the composition is 9:1.
 67. The composition ofclaim 66, comprising: nanoparticles comprising paclitaxel and albumin.68. The composition of claim 67, wherein the nanoparticles have anaverage diameter of no greater than about 220 nm.
 69. The composition ofclaim 66, further comprising a solvent for paclitaxel.
 70. Thecomposition of claim 69, wherein the solvent for paclitaxel comprisesmethylene chloride.
 71. The composition of claim 69, wherein the solventfor paclitaxel comprises chloroform.
 72. The composition of claim 69,wherein the solvent for paclitaxel comprises ethanol.
 73. Thecomposition of claim 66 in the form of a lyophilized powder.
 74. Thecomposition of claim 68 in the form of a lyophilized powder.
 75. A unitdose of the composition of claim 68 contained within a container.
 76. Aunit dose of the composition of claim 73 contained within a container.77. The container of claim 75, wherein the container is a sealed vial.78. The container of claim 76, wherein the container is a sealed vial.79. The composition of claim 68, wherein the nanoparticles comprisepaclitaxel and have an albumin coating.
 80. The composition of claim 79,wherein the nanoparticles have a core and the nanoparticle core issubstantially free of a polymeric matrix.
 81. The composition of claim79, wherein the albumin coating has free albumin associated therewith,and wherein a portion of the paclitaxel is contained within the albumincoating and a portion of the paclitaxel is associated with the freealbumin.
 82. The composition of claim 68, wherein at least a portion ofthe albumin is crosslinked by disulfide bonds.
 83. The composition ofclaim 68, wherein the paclitaxel is substantially amorphous.
 84. Thecomposition of claim 66, wherein the paclitaxel is substantiallycrystalline.
 85. The composition of claim 83 in the form of alyophilized powder.
 86. A method of treatment, comprising administeringan effective amount of the composition of claim 68 to a patient to treata tumor.
 87. The method of claim 86, wherein the composition isadministered parenterally, orally, intravenously, subcutaneously,intraperitoneally, intrathecally, intramuscularly, by inhalation,topically, transdermally, rectally, or vaginally.
 88. The method ofclaim 87, wherein the composition is administered intravenously.
 89. Themethod of claim 88, wherein the pharmaceutical formulation is infused,and the infusion volume is no greater than 200 ml.
 90. A method oftreatment, comprising administering an effective amount of thecomposition of claim 68 to a patient to treat rheumatoid arthritis. 91.The method of claim 90, wherein the composition is administeredparenterally, orally, intravenously, intraarterially, subcutaneously,intraperitoneally, intrathecally, intramuscularly, by inhalation,topically, transdermally, rectally, or vaginally.